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Table of Contents
Intro
Contents
Preface to Third Edition
Preface to Second Edition
Preface to First Edition
Chapter 1 Automotive Fuels and Their Specification
References
Chapter 2 A History of Gasoline and Diesel Fuel Development
2.1 Gasoline
2.1.1 The Evolution of the Gasoline Engine
2.1.2 Gasoline Development
2.2 Diesel Fuel
2.2.1 The Evolution of the Diesel Engine
2.2.2 Diesel Fuel Development
References
Further Reading
Chapter 3 Manufacture of Gasoline and Diesel Fuel from Crude Oil
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Crude Oil
3.3 Influence of Product Demand Pattern on Processing
3.4 Distillation
3.5 Cracking Processes
3.5.1 Thermal Cracking
3.5.2 Visbreaking
3.5.3 Coking
3.5.4 Catalytic Cracking
3.5.5 Hydrocracking
3.5.5.1 Catalytic Distillate Dewaxing
3.5.6 Steam Cracking
3.6 Catalytic Reforming
3.7 Alkylation, Isomerization, and Polymerization
3.7.1 Alkylation
3.7.2 Isomerization
3.7.3 Polymerization
3.8 Finishing Processes
3.8.1 Caustic Washing
3.8.2 Merox Treating
3.8.3 Hydrodesulfurization
3.8.3.1 Sources of Hydrogen
3.9 Oxygenated Gasoline Components
3.9.1 Alcohols
3.9.2 Ethers
3.10 Gasoline Blending
3.10.1 Blending Operations
3.10.2 Blending Calculations
3.10.3 Octane Blending
3.10.4 Reid Vapor Pressure (RVP) Blending
3.10.5 ASTM Distillation Blending
3.11 Diesel Fuel Blending
3.11.1 Diesel Blending Operations
3.11.2 Diesel Blend Calculations
References
Further Reading
Chapter 4 Manufacture of Gasoline and Diesel Fuel from Non-Crude Oil Fossil Sources
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Coal
4.2.1 Syn-Gas Production
4.2.2 F-T Synthesis
4.2.3 Product Upgrading
4.2.3.1 Hydrocracking
4.2.3.2 Oligomerization
4.2.3.3 Catalytic Reforming
4.2.3.4 Alcohol Dehydration
4.3 Gas to Liquids.
4.4 Gaseous Fuels
4.4.1 Gaseous Fuel Supply
4.4.2 Gaseous Fuel Composition and Properties
4.4.2.1 Gaseous Fuel Components
4.4.2.2 Wobbe Index and Fuel Metering
4.4.2.3 Propensity to Knock: Octane and Methane Numbers
4.4.2.4 Effect of Gaseous Fuel Composition on Emissions
4.4.3 Gaseous Fuels Dispensing and Storage
4.4.3.1 Compressed Natural Gas (CNG)
4.4.3.2 Recommended Practice for CNG: SAE J1616
4.4.3.3 LNG Dispensing and Storage
4.4.3.4 LPG Dispensing and Storage
4.4.4 Gaseous-Fuel Engine Technology
4.4.4.1 Fuel Metering Systems
4.4.4.2 Spark-Ignition Engines
4.4.4.3 Dual-Fuel (Compression Ignition) Engines
4.5 Oil Sands Fuel
4.5.1 Oil Sands Extraction and Processing
4.5.1.1 Surface Mining
4.5.1.2 Subterranean Recovery
4.5.1.3 In Situ Processing
4.6 Oil Shale Fuel
4.6.1 Oil Shale Mining and Processing
4.6.2 In Situ Retorting
References
Further Reading
Chapter 5 Manufacture of Gasoline and Diesel Fuel from Renewable Sources
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Minimally Processed Vegetable Oil
5.3 Bio-Ethanol
5.3.1 Ethanol from Sugar Crops
5.3.2 Ethanol from Grain Crops
5.3.3 Lignocellulosic Ethanol
5.4 Biodiesel Fuel
5.5 Hydrotreated Vegetable Oil
References
Further Reading
Chapter 6 Storage, Distribution, and Handling of Gasoline and Diesel Fuel
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Safety Considerations for Storage and Handling
6.2.1 Flash Point
6.2.2 Electrical Conductivity
6.3 Health and Environmental Effects of Gasoline
6.3.1 Health Aspects
6.3.1.1 Inhalation
6.3.1.2 Ingestion
6.3.1.3 Aspiration
6.3.1.4 Skin Contact
6.3.1.5 Eye Contact
6.3.2 Exposure Limits
6.3.3 Ecotoxicity
6.3.4 Disposal
6.4 Health and Environmental Effects of Diesel Fuel
6.4.1 Health Aspects
6.4.1.1 Inhalation
6.4.1.2 Ingestion.
6.4.1.3 Aspiration
6.4.1.4 Skin Contact
6.4.1.5 Eye Contact
6.4.2 Exposure Limits
6.4.3 Ecotoxicity
6.4.4 Disposal
6.5 Influences on Product Quality during Distribution
6.5.1 Sea Transport
6.5.2 Pipeline
6.5.3 Road and Rail
6.6 Influences on Product Quality during Storage
6.6.1 Water Contamination in Tankage
6.6.2 Microbiological Contamination
6.6.3 Sludge in Tankage
6.6.4 Evaporative Losses
6.6.5 Oxidation
6.7 Considerations with Oxygenated Blends
6.7.1 Environmental Aspects of Fuels Containing MTBE
6.7.2 Water Sensitivity of Alcohol Blends
6.7.3 Safety and Fire Protection for Alcohol Blends
6.7.4 Oxidation Stability of Biodiesel
6.7.5 Cold Stability of Biodiesel
References
Further Reading
Chapter 7 Positive Ignition Engine Combustion Process
7.1 Normal Combustion
7.1.1 Mixture Requirements
7.1.2 The Combustion Process
7.2 Spark Knock
7.2.1 How Spark Knock Occurs
7.3 Measurement of Gasoline Antiknock Quality
7.3.1 Research and Motor Octane Number
7.3.2 Road Octane Number
7.3.3 Octane Index and Modern Engines
7.3.4 Influence of Chemical Structure on Octane Quality
7.4 Antiknock Additives
7.4.1 Lead Alkyls
7.4.2 MMT-Methylcyclopentadienyl Manganese Tricarbonyl
7.4.3 Other Metallic Antiknocks
7.4.4 Organic Antiknocks
7.4.5 Oxygenated Blending Components
7.5 Octane Blending
7.6 Octane Requirements of Vehicles and Engines
7.6.1 Vehicles with Knock Sensor Systems
7.6.2 Data Analysis
7.6.3 Octane Rating of Fuels Using Vehicles or Engines
7.6.4 Engine and Other Factors That Influence Octane Requirements
7.7 Octane Requirement Increase (ORI)
7.8 Other Abnormal Combustion Phenomena
7.8.1 Pre-Ignition
7.8.1.1 Fuel Quality Effects on Pre-Ignition
7.8.1.2 Deposits and Pre-Ignition.
7.8.1.3 Inherent Fuel Resistance to Pre-Ignition
7.8.2 Misfire
7.8.3 Run-On
References
Further Reading
Chapter 8 Gasoline Engine Design and Influence of Fuel Characteristics
8.1 Introduction
8.2 The Gasoline Engine
8.2.1 Otto Cycle
8.2.2 The Atkinson Cycle
8.2.3 The Miller Cycle
8.3 Vehicle Fuel Systems
8.3.1 The Fuel Metering System
8.3.1.1 Carburetors
8.3.1.2 Throttle Body Fuel Injection
8.3.1.3 Port Fuel Injection
8.3.1.4 Direct Fuel Injection
8.3.1.4.1 Direct Injection Strategies
8.3.1.4.2 Direct Injection Injector Technology
8.3.2 The Fuel Tank and Pump
8.4 Ignition Systems
8.5 Combustion and Exhaust Emission Control Systems
8.5.1 Combustion Chamber Configuration
8.5.1.1 Combustion Chamber Shape
8.5.1.2 Valve Layouts
8.5.2 The Effect of Air-to-Fuel Ratio
8.5.3 Exhaust Aftertreatment Systems
8.5.3.1 Oxidation Catalysts
8.5.3.2 Three-Way Catalysts
8.5.3.3 Lean NOX Traps
8.5.3.4 Particulate Filters
References
Further Reading
Chapter 9 Gasoline Volatility
9.1 Measurement of Gasoline Volatility
9.1.1 Vapor Pressure
9.1.2 Reid Vapor Pressure
9.1.3 Dry Vapor Pressure and DVPE
9.1.4 Distillation by ASTM D86
9.1.5 Vapor-Liquid Ratio
9.1.6 Effect of Oxygenated Blending Components
9.2 Cold Starting
9.2.1 Different Fuel System Technologies
9.2.1.1 Carbureted Engines
9.2.1.2 Port Fuel Injected Engines
9.2.1.3 Direct Injection Engines
9.2.2 Relevant Specifications
9.3 Cold Weather Driveability
9.3.1 Cold Weather Driveability Test Procedures
9.3.1.1 U.S. Test Procedures
9.3.1.2 European Procedures
9.3.2 Relevant Fuel Parameters
9.3.2.1 U.S. Driveability Index
9.3.2.2 European and Japanese Indices
9.4 Hot Weather Driveability
9.4.1 Hot Weather Driveability Testing.
9.4.2 Hot Weather Driveability Problems
9.4.2.1 Fuel Weathering
9.4.2.2 Vapor Lock
9.4.2.3 Carburetor Percolation
9.4.2.4 Carburetor Foaming
9.4.3 Hot Weather Fuel Parameter Specification
9.5 Evaporative Emissions from Vehicles
9.5.1 Measuring Evaporative Emissions
9.5.2 Reducing Evaporative Emissions
9.6 Influence of Fuel Volatility on Exhaust Emissions
9.7 Intake System Icing
9.7.1 Throttle Icing in Carbureted and Throttle Body Injected Engines
9.7.2 Throttle Icing in Multipoint Fuel Injected Engines
9.8 Oil Dilution and Combustion Chamber Deposits
9.9 Fuel Economy and Gasoline Volatility
References
Further Reading
Chapter 10 Influence of Gasoline Composition on Stability, Gum Formation, and Engine Deposits
10.1 The Influence of Gasoline Composition on Stability
10.1.1 Measurement of Stability
10.1.1.1 Measurement of Oxidation Stability by Induction Period Method
10.1.1.2 Automated Measurement of Induction Period
10.1.1.3 Measurement of Gum Content by Jet Evaporation
10.1.1.4 Measurement of Oxidation Stability by Potential Residue Method
10.1.1.5 Measurement of Long-Term Stability
10.2 Deposit Formation in Engines Due to Gasoline Oxidation
10.2.1 Deposit Formation in the Fuel Tank and Fuel Lines
10.2.2 Deposit Formation in Fuel Injectors and Carburetors
10.2.2.1 Chrysler 2.2
10.2.2.2 Other Vehicle-Based Injector Deposit Test
10.2.2.3 CRC Injector Deposit Bench Test
10.2.3 Deposit Formation in the Inlet Manifold, Ports, and on Valves
10.2.3.1 Opel Kadett Test
10.2.3.2 Mercedes-Benz M102E Test
10.2.3.3 BMW 318i Test
10.2.3.4 Mercedes-Benz M111 Test
10.2.3.5 Ford 2.3 Test
10.2.3.6 Other Engine Tests
10.2.3.7 Bench Simulator Rigs
10.2.3.8 Valve Stick Test
10.2.4 Combustion Chamber Deposits.
10.2.4.1 Deposit Formation in Direct Injection Gasoline Engines.
Contents
Preface to Third Edition
Preface to Second Edition
Preface to First Edition
Chapter 1 Automotive Fuels and Their Specification
References
Chapter 2 A History of Gasoline and Diesel Fuel Development
2.1 Gasoline
2.1.1 The Evolution of the Gasoline Engine
2.1.2 Gasoline Development
2.2 Diesel Fuel
2.2.1 The Evolution of the Diesel Engine
2.2.2 Diesel Fuel Development
References
Further Reading
Chapter 3 Manufacture of Gasoline and Diesel Fuel from Crude Oil
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Crude Oil
3.3 Influence of Product Demand Pattern on Processing
3.4 Distillation
3.5 Cracking Processes
3.5.1 Thermal Cracking
3.5.2 Visbreaking
3.5.3 Coking
3.5.4 Catalytic Cracking
3.5.5 Hydrocracking
3.5.5.1 Catalytic Distillate Dewaxing
3.5.6 Steam Cracking
3.6 Catalytic Reforming
3.7 Alkylation, Isomerization, and Polymerization
3.7.1 Alkylation
3.7.2 Isomerization
3.7.3 Polymerization
3.8 Finishing Processes
3.8.1 Caustic Washing
3.8.2 Merox Treating
3.8.3 Hydrodesulfurization
3.8.3.1 Sources of Hydrogen
3.9 Oxygenated Gasoline Components
3.9.1 Alcohols
3.9.2 Ethers
3.10 Gasoline Blending
3.10.1 Blending Operations
3.10.2 Blending Calculations
3.10.3 Octane Blending
3.10.4 Reid Vapor Pressure (RVP) Blending
3.10.5 ASTM Distillation Blending
3.11 Diesel Fuel Blending
3.11.1 Diesel Blending Operations
3.11.2 Diesel Blend Calculations
References
Further Reading
Chapter 4 Manufacture of Gasoline and Diesel Fuel from Non-Crude Oil Fossil Sources
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Coal
4.2.1 Syn-Gas Production
4.2.2 F-T Synthesis
4.2.3 Product Upgrading
4.2.3.1 Hydrocracking
4.2.3.2 Oligomerization
4.2.3.3 Catalytic Reforming
4.2.3.4 Alcohol Dehydration
4.3 Gas to Liquids.
4.4 Gaseous Fuels
4.4.1 Gaseous Fuel Supply
4.4.2 Gaseous Fuel Composition and Properties
4.4.2.1 Gaseous Fuel Components
4.4.2.2 Wobbe Index and Fuel Metering
4.4.2.3 Propensity to Knock: Octane and Methane Numbers
4.4.2.4 Effect of Gaseous Fuel Composition on Emissions
4.4.3 Gaseous Fuels Dispensing and Storage
4.4.3.1 Compressed Natural Gas (CNG)
4.4.3.2 Recommended Practice for CNG: SAE J1616
4.4.3.3 LNG Dispensing and Storage
4.4.3.4 LPG Dispensing and Storage
4.4.4 Gaseous-Fuel Engine Technology
4.4.4.1 Fuel Metering Systems
4.4.4.2 Spark-Ignition Engines
4.4.4.3 Dual-Fuel (Compression Ignition) Engines
4.5 Oil Sands Fuel
4.5.1 Oil Sands Extraction and Processing
4.5.1.1 Surface Mining
4.5.1.2 Subterranean Recovery
4.5.1.3 In Situ Processing
4.6 Oil Shale Fuel
4.6.1 Oil Shale Mining and Processing
4.6.2 In Situ Retorting
References
Further Reading
Chapter 5 Manufacture of Gasoline and Diesel Fuel from Renewable Sources
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Minimally Processed Vegetable Oil
5.3 Bio-Ethanol
5.3.1 Ethanol from Sugar Crops
5.3.2 Ethanol from Grain Crops
5.3.3 Lignocellulosic Ethanol
5.4 Biodiesel Fuel
5.5 Hydrotreated Vegetable Oil
References
Further Reading
Chapter 6 Storage, Distribution, and Handling of Gasoline and Diesel Fuel
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Safety Considerations for Storage and Handling
6.2.1 Flash Point
6.2.2 Electrical Conductivity
6.3 Health and Environmental Effects of Gasoline
6.3.1 Health Aspects
6.3.1.1 Inhalation
6.3.1.2 Ingestion
6.3.1.3 Aspiration
6.3.1.4 Skin Contact
6.3.1.5 Eye Contact
6.3.2 Exposure Limits
6.3.3 Ecotoxicity
6.3.4 Disposal
6.4 Health and Environmental Effects of Diesel Fuel
6.4.1 Health Aspects
6.4.1.1 Inhalation
6.4.1.2 Ingestion.
6.4.1.3 Aspiration
6.4.1.4 Skin Contact
6.4.1.5 Eye Contact
6.4.2 Exposure Limits
6.4.3 Ecotoxicity
6.4.4 Disposal
6.5 Influences on Product Quality during Distribution
6.5.1 Sea Transport
6.5.2 Pipeline
6.5.3 Road and Rail
6.6 Influences on Product Quality during Storage
6.6.1 Water Contamination in Tankage
6.6.2 Microbiological Contamination
6.6.3 Sludge in Tankage
6.6.4 Evaporative Losses
6.6.5 Oxidation
6.7 Considerations with Oxygenated Blends
6.7.1 Environmental Aspects of Fuels Containing MTBE
6.7.2 Water Sensitivity of Alcohol Blends
6.7.3 Safety and Fire Protection for Alcohol Blends
6.7.4 Oxidation Stability of Biodiesel
6.7.5 Cold Stability of Biodiesel
References
Further Reading
Chapter 7 Positive Ignition Engine Combustion Process
7.1 Normal Combustion
7.1.1 Mixture Requirements
7.1.2 The Combustion Process
7.2 Spark Knock
7.2.1 How Spark Knock Occurs
7.3 Measurement of Gasoline Antiknock Quality
7.3.1 Research and Motor Octane Number
7.3.2 Road Octane Number
7.3.3 Octane Index and Modern Engines
7.3.4 Influence of Chemical Structure on Octane Quality
7.4 Antiknock Additives
7.4.1 Lead Alkyls
7.4.2 MMT-Methylcyclopentadienyl Manganese Tricarbonyl
7.4.3 Other Metallic Antiknocks
7.4.4 Organic Antiknocks
7.4.5 Oxygenated Blending Components
7.5 Octane Blending
7.6 Octane Requirements of Vehicles and Engines
7.6.1 Vehicles with Knock Sensor Systems
7.6.2 Data Analysis
7.6.3 Octane Rating of Fuels Using Vehicles or Engines
7.6.4 Engine and Other Factors That Influence Octane Requirements
7.7 Octane Requirement Increase (ORI)
7.8 Other Abnormal Combustion Phenomena
7.8.1 Pre-Ignition
7.8.1.1 Fuel Quality Effects on Pre-Ignition
7.8.1.2 Deposits and Pre-Ignition.
7.8.1.3 Inherent Fuel Resistance to Pre-Ignition
7.8.2 Misfire
7.8.3 Run-On
References
Further Reading
Chapter 8 Gasoline Engine Design and Influence of Fuel Characteristics
8.1 Introduction
8.2 The Gasoline Engine
8.2.1 Otto Cycle
8.2.2 The Atkinson Cycle
8.2.3 The Miller Cycle
8.3 Vehicle Fuel Systems
8.3.1 The Fuel Metering System
8.3.1.1 Carburetors
8.3.1.2 Throttle Body Fuel Injection
8.3.1.3 Port Fuel Injection
8.3.1.4 Direct Fuel Injection
8.3.1.4.1 Direct Injection Strategies
8.3.1.4.2 Direct Injection Injector Technology
8.3.2 The Fuel Tank and Pump
8.4 Ignition Systems
8.5 Combustion and Exhaust Emission Control Systems
8.5.1 Combustion Chamber Configuration
8.5.1.1 Combustion Chamber Shape
8.5.1.2 Valve Layouts
8.5.2 The Effect of Air-to-Fuel Ratio
8.5.3 Exhaust Aftertreatment Systems
8.5.3.1 Oxidation Catalysts
8.5.3.2 Three-Way Catalysts
8.5.3.3 Lean NOX Traps
8.5.3.4 Particulate Filters
References
Further Reading
Chapter 9 Gasoline Volatility
9.1 Measurement of Gasoline Volatility
9.1.1 Vapor Pressure
9.1.2 Reid Vapor Pressure
9.1.3 Dry Vapor Pressure and DVPE
9.1.4 Distillation by ASTM D86
9.1.5 Vapor-Liquid Ratio
9.1.6 Effect of Oxygenated Blending Components
9.2 Cold Starting
9.2.1 Different Fuel System Technologies
9.2.1.1 Carbureted Engines
9.2.1.2 Port Fuel Injected Engines
9.2.1.3 Direct Injection Engines
9.2.2 Relevant Specifications
9.3 Cold Weather Driveability
9.3.1 Cold Weather Driveability Test Procedures
9.3.1.1 U.S. Test Procedures
9.3.1.2 European Procedures
9.3.2 Relevant Fuel Parameters
9.3.2.1 U.S. Driveability Index
9.3.2.2 European and Japanese Indices
9.4 Hot Weather Driveability
9.4.1 Hot Weather Driveability Testing.
9.4.2 Hot Weather Driveability Problems
9.4.2.1 Fuel Weathering
9.4.2.2 Vapor Lock
9.4.2.3 Carburetor Percolation
9.4.2.4 Carburetor Foaming
9.4.3 Hot Weather Fuel Parameter Specification
9.5 Evaporative Emissions from Vehicles
9.5.1 Measuring Evaporative Emissions
9.5.2 Reducing Evaporative Emissions
9.6 Influence of Fuel Volatility on Exhaust Emissions
9.7 Intake System Icing
9.7.1 Throttle Icing in Carbureted and Throttle Body Injected Engines
9.7.2 Throttle Icing in Multipoint Fuel Injected Engines
9.8 Oil Dilution and Combustion Chamber Deposits
9.9 Fuel Economy and Gasoline Volatility
References
Further Reading
Chapter 10 Influence of Gasoline Composition on Stability, Gum Formation, and Engine Deposits
10.1 The Influence of Gasoline Composition on Stability
10.1.1 Measurement of Stability
10.1.1.1 Measurement of Oxidation Stability by Induction Period Method
10.1.1.2 Automated Measurement of Induction Period
10.1.1.3 Measurement of Gum Content by Jet Evaporation
10.1.1.4 Measurement of Oxidation Stability by Potential Residue Method
10.1.1.5 Measurement of Long-Term Stability
10.2 Deposit Formation in Engines Due to Gasoline Oxidation
10.2.1 Deposit Formation in the Fuel Tank and Fuel Lines
10.2.2 Deposit Formation in Fuel Injectors and Carburetors
10.2.2.1 Chrysler 2.2
10.2.2.2 Other Vehicle-Based Injector Deposit Test
10.2.2.3 CRC Injector Deposit Bench Test
10.2.3 Deposit Formation in the Inlet Manifold, Ports, and on Valves
10.2.3.1 Opel Kadett Test
10.2.3.2 Mercedes-Benz M102E Test
10.2.3.3 BMW 318i Test
10.2.3.4 Mercedes-Benz M111 Test
10.2.3.5 Ford 2.3 Test
10.2.3.6 Other Engine Tests
10.2.3.7 Bench Simulator Rigs
10.2.3.8 Valve Stick Test
10.2.4 Combustion Chamber Deposits.
10.2.4.1 Deposit Formation in Direct Injection Gasoline Engines.