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CHAPTER 1 Introduction to Composites and Care of Composite Parts
1.1 Definition of Composites
1.2 History of Composite Materials
1.3 Advantages and Disadvantages of Composites
1.3.1 Advantages of Composites
1.3.2 Disadvantages of Thermosetting Resin Composites
1.3.3 Advantages of Thermosetting Resin Composites
1.3.4 Advantages of Thermoplastic Resin Composites
1.3.5 Disadvantages of Thermoplastic Resin Composites
1.4 Applications of Composites to Modern Aircraft, Yachts, Cars, and Trains
1.4.1 Early Aircraft Structures
1.4.2 Modern Aircraft Structures and Other Applications
1.4.3 Projected Use of Composites
1.5 Care of Composite Parts
1.5.1 Sources of Damage to Composite Parts
1.5.1.1 Physical or Chemical Damage
1.5.1.2 Deterioration in Normal Service
1.5.2 Avoidance of Damage and Reduction of Deterioration in Service
References
CHAPTER 2 Materials
2.1 Fiber Reinforcement
2.1.1 Comparison of Some High-Performance Fibers and Common Metals
2.1.2 Glass Fiber
2.1.2.1 Glass Manufacture
2.1.2.2 Glass Fiber Manufacture
2.1.3 Carbon Fibers
2.1.3.1 Carbon Fiber Manufacture
2.1.3.2 Future Development
2.1.3.3 Further Details of Carbon and Graphite Fibers
2.1.4 Aramid Fibers
2.1.5 Boron Fibers
2.1.6 Other New Fibers
2.2 Forms of Reinforcement
2.2.1 Tapes
2.2.2 Fabrics
2.2.2.1 Woven Fabric Weave Styles
2.2.2.2 Effect of Weave Style
2.2.2.3 Non-crimp Fabrics
2.2.2.4 Nonwoven Randomly Oriented Mats
2.2.2.5 Fiber and Fabric Glossary
2.3 Fiber Sizing and Finish
2.3.1 Glass Fiber Finishes
2.3.2 Carbon Fiber Finishes
2.3.3 Aramid Fiber Finishes
2.3.4 Sizing and Finish for New Types of Fibers and Fabrics
2.4 Matrix (Resin) Systems
2.4.1 Thermoplastic Composites
2.4.1.1 Early Applications
2.4.2 Thermosetting Resins.
2.4.3 Properties Required of Matrix Resins and Adhesives
2.4.3.1 Physical and Chemical Properties
2.4.3.2 Mechanical Properties
2.4.3.3 Epoxy-Based Matrix Resins and Adhesives for Aerospace Use
2.4.4 Epoxy and Phenolic Pre-pregs and Film Adhesives: Curing Stages
2.4.5 Mixing and Mix Ratios for Epoxy Wet Resins
2.4.5.1 Weighing
2.4.5.2 Mixing
2.4.5.3 Definitions Related to Mixing and Application
2.4.6 Polyester Resins
2.5 Adhesives
2.5.1 Liquid and Paste Adhesives
2.5.2 Foaming Adhesives
2.5.3 Film Adhesives
2.5.4 Glue-Line Thickness Control
2.5.5 In-Service Effects on Resin Systems
2.6 Core Materials
2.6.1 Wood
2.6.2 Foam Core Materials
2.6.2.1 Material Types
2.6.2.2 Foam Density
2.6.2.3 Advantages and Disadvantages
2.6.3 Honeycomb Core Materials
2.6.3.1 Honeycomb Material Types
2.6.3.2 Cell Shapes
2.6.3.3 Honeycomb Densities and Cell Sizes
2.6.4 Fluted Core
2.6.5 Syntactic Core
2.7 Syntactic Foams and Potting Compounds
2.7.1 Filler Materials for Potting Compounds, Resin Systems, and Adhesives
2.7.2 Other Fillers
2.8 Protective Coatings
2.8.1 Sealants
2.8.1.1 Old-Generation Thiokol Sealants
2.8.1.2 New-Generation Polythioether Sealants
2.8.1.3 Silicone Sealants
2.8.1.4 Viton Rubber Sealants
2.8.2 Primers
2.8.3 Finishes
2.8.4 Conductive Coatings
2.8.5 Erosion-Resistant Coatings
2.8.6 Other Protective Coatings
References
Bibliography
CHAPTER 3 Handling and Storage
3.1 Shipping and Receiving
3.2 Temperature Requirements
3.3 Storage Practices
3.3.1 Temperature Requirements
3.3.1.1 Dry Fabrics
3.3.1.2 Storage of Pre-preg, Film, and Paste Adhesives, Potting Compounds, and Primers
3.3.1.2.1 Thermoplastic Resins and Their Composites.
3.3.1.3 Storage of Sealants for Aircraft Use.
3.3.1.4 Storage of Consumable Items for Composite and Bonded Metal Repairs
3.3.2 Cleanliness and Damage Prevention
3.3.3 Moisture Damage Prevention
3.3.4 Identification
3.3.5 Release Notes and Approved Certificates
3.4 Shelf Life/Out-Time
3.5 Kitting
3.6 Recertification
3.7 Care of Materials in the Hangar or Workshop
CHAPTER 4 Manufacturing Techniques
4.1 Filament Winding
4.2 Lay-Up Methods for Fabrics and Tapes
4.2.1 Hand Lay-Up (Wet and Pre-preg Laminating)
4.2.2 Automated Lay-Up
4.3 Pultrusion
4.4 Resin Transfer Molding
4.5 Injection Molding
4.6 Tow Placement
4.7 Press Molding
4.8 Vacuum Bonding
4.9 Autoclave Bonding
4.10 Oven Curing
References
Other Useful Reading
CHAPTER 5 Original Design Criteria
5.1 Principal, Primary, and Secondary Structures
5.1.1 Sources of Damage to Composite Airframe Components
5.1.2 Consequences of Failure
5.2 Types of Composite Structures
5.2.1 Monolithic Laminated Structures (Solid Laminates)
5.2.2 Sandwich Structures
5.3 Ply Orientation
5.3.1 Warp Clock
5.3.2 Balance and Symmetry
5.3.3 Nesting and Stacking
5.4 Core Orientation and Other Design Characteristics
5.5 Operational Environment
5.5.1 Temperature
5.5.2 Humidity
5.5.3 Contaminants
5.5.4 Erosion
5.5.5 Thermal Stresses
5.5.6 Hygrothermal Effects
5.5.7 Fire Resistance
5.6 Electrical Requirements
5.6.1 Galvanic Corrosion
5.6.2 Electromagnetic Interference
5.6.3 Electrostatic Discharge
5.6.4 Lightning Strike Energy Dispersion
5.6.5 Radar Transmissivity
5.7 Mechanical Requirements
5.7.1 Tensile and Flexural Strength
5.7.2 Stiffness
5.7.3 Fatigue
5.7.4 Impact Resistance
5.7.5 Creep
5.8 Attachments/Joints
5.8.1 Bonded Joints
5.8.2 Mechanically Fastened/Riveted Joints.
5.9 Other Design Requirements
5.9.1 Aerodynamic Smoothness
5.9.2 Weight and Balance
References
CHAPTER 6 Safety and Environment
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Workshop Conditions for Good Bonding
6.3 Respirable Fibers and Dust
6.3.1 Fiberglass
6.3.2 Carbon and Graphite Fibers
6.3.3 Aramid Fibers
6.3.4 Sanding Dust
6.4 Fumes and Vapors
6.4.1 Resin Fumes
6.4.2 Solvent Vapors
6.4.3 Sealant Vapors
6.4.4 Coatings
6.4.5 Fuel
6.4.6 Acid Fumes and Splash
6.4.7 Exposure Limits
6.5 Skin Contact
6.5.1 Fibers in Contact with the Skin
6.5.2 Resins in Contact with the Skin
6.5.3 Solvents in Contact with the Skin
6.5.4 Selection of Suitable Gloves
6.5.5 Skin Creams for Personal Protection
6.6 Material Safety Data Sheets
6.7 Exothermic Reactions
6.8 Waste Disposal
6.9 Safety Procedures
6.9.1 Emergency Action First-Aid Procedures
6.9.2 General Safety Procedures
6.9.3 Personal Safety Precautions
6.9.4 Dermatitis
6.10 Action in the Event of a Chemical Spillage
6.11 Explosion Risk
6.12 Static Discharge and Fire Prevention
6.12.1 Static Discharge Prevention
6.12.2 Fire Prevention
6.13 Safety Requirements for Electrical Appliances
6.14 ISO Environmental Management Standards
References
Bibliography
CHAPTER 7 Damage and Repair Assessment
7.1 Visual Inspection
7.2 Tap Test
7.3 Ultrasonic Inspection
7.4 X-Ray Methods
7.5 Eddy Current Inspection
7.6 Thermography
7.7 Bond Testers
7.8 Moisture Meters
7.9 Drying of Composites Prior to Repair
7.10 Interferometry/Shearography
7.11 Damage Types
7.12 Sources of Mechanical Damage
7.13 Damage Mapping
7.13.1 Assessment of Damage Significance
References
CHAPTER 8 Source Documents
8.1 Revision Systems
8.2 Effectivity
8.3 Drawing Numbering Systems.
8.4 Internal Documents
8.5 Material and Process Specifications
8.6 Original Equipment Manufacturer Documents
8.7 Regulatory Documents
8.8 Airlines for America (formerly Air Transport Association of America) ATA 100 System
8.9 Aircraft Maintenance Manual
8.10 Component Maintenance Manual
8.11 Overhaul Manual
8.12 Illustrated Parts Catalog
8.13 Structural Repair Manual
8.14 Engine Manual
CHAPTER 9 Structural Repair Manual (SRM) Repair Method Selection
9.1 Component Identification
9.2 Damage Classification
9.2.1 Damage Terminology
9.2.2 Critical Areas
9.2.3 Allowable/Negligible Damage
9.2.4 Repairable Damage
9.2.5 Overhaul or Replace
9.2.6 Other Considerations
9.3 Repair Methods
9.3.1 Speedtape
9.3.2 Resin Sealing
9.3.3 Potted Repairs
9.3.4 Bolted Doublers (Metal Plates) and Bonded Doublers (Composite Patches)
9.3.5 Pre-cured Doublers Versus Co-cured Doublers
9.3.6 Room-Temperature Wet Lay-Up
9.3.7 Elevated-Temperature Wet Lay-Up
9.3.8 Pre-preg Repairs
9.3.9 Scarfed and Stepped-Lap Repairs
9.3.10 Composite Repairs to Metals
References
CHAPTER 10 Repair Techniques
10.1 Preparation
10.1.1 Paint Removal
10.1.2 Disbonding Methods
10.1.2.1 Disbonding Adhesively Bonded Metal Parts
10.1.2.2 Disbonding Composite Parts
10.1.3 Damage Removal
10.1.3.1 Damage Removal from Metal Parts
10.1.3.2 Removal of Skin and Doubler Material
10.1.3.3 Damage Removal from Composite Parts
10.1.3.4 Removal of Core Material
10.1.3.5 Removal of Surface Corrosion
10.1.4 Moisture and Contamination Removal
10.1.5 Surface Preparation of Composites: Repair Sanding and Ply Determination
10.1.5.1 Abrading
10.1.5.2 Taper Sanding/Scarfing
10.1.5.3 Step Sanding and Cutting
10.1.6 Water Break Test
10.1.7 Metallic Surface Preparation.
10.2 Typical Repairs.
CHAPTER 1 Introduction to Composites and Care of Composite Parts
1.1 Definition of Composites
1.2 History of Composite Materials
1.3 Advantages and Disadvantages of Composites
1.3.1 Advantages of Composites
1.3.2 Disadvantages of Thermosetting Resin Composites
1.3.3 Advantages of Thermosetting Resin Composites
1.3.4 Advantages of Thermoplastic Resin Composites
1.3.5 Disadvantages of Thermoplastic Resin Composites
1.4 Applications of Composites to Modern Aircraft, Yachts, Cars, and Trains
1.4.1 Early Aircraft Structures
1.4.2 Modern Aircraft Structures and Other Applications
1.4.3 Projected Use of Composites
1.5 Care of Composite Parts
1.5.1 Sources of Damage to Composite Parts
1.5.1.1 Physical or Chemical Damage
1.5.1.2 Deterioration in Normal Service
1.5.2 Avoidance of Damage and Reduction of Deterioration in Service
References
CHAPTER 2 Materials
2.1 Fiber Reinforcement
2.1.1 Comparison of Some High-Performance Fibers and Common Metals
2.1.2 Glass Fiber
2.1.2.1 Glass Manufacture
2.1.2.2 Glass Fiber Manufacture
2.1.3 Carbon Fibers
2.1.3.1 Carbon Fiber Manufacture
2.1.3.2 Future Development
2.1.3.3 Further Details of Carbon and Graphite Fibers
2.1.4 Aramid Fibers
2.1.5 Boron Fibers
2.1.6 Other New Fibers
2.2 Forms of Reinforcement
2.2.1 Tapes
2.2.2 Fabrics
2.2.2.1 Woven Fabric Weave Styles
2.2.2.2 Effect of Weave Style
2.2.2.3 Non-crimp Fabrics
2.2.2.4 Nonwoven Randomly Oriented Mats
2.2.2.5 Fiber and Fabric Glossary
2.3 Fiber Sizing and Finish
2.3.1 Glass Fiber Finishes
2.3.2 Carbon Fiber Finishes
2.3.3 Aramid Fiber Finishes
2.3.4 Sizing and Finish for New Types of Fibers and Fabrics
2.4 Matrix (Resin) Systems
2.4.1 Thermoplastic Composites
2.4.1.1 Early Applications
2.4.2 Thermosetting Resins.
2.4.3 Properties Required of Matrix Resins and Adhesives
2.4.3.1 Physical and Chemical Properties
2.4.3.2 Mechanical Properties
2.4.3.3 Epoxy-Based Matrix Resins and Adhesives for Aerospace Use
2.4.4 Epoxy and Phenolic Pre-pregs and Film Adhesives: Curing Stages
2.4.5 Mixing and Mix Ratios for Epoxy Wet Resins
2.4.5.1 Weighing
2.4.5.2 Mixing
2.4.5.3 Definitions Related to Mixing and Application
2.4.6 Polyester Resins
2.5 Adhesives
2.5.1 Liquid and Paste Adhesives
2.5.2 Foaming Adhesives
2.5.3 Film Adhesives
2.5.4 Glue-Line Thickness Control
2.5.5 In-Service Effects on Resin Systems
2.6 Core Materials
2.6.1 Wood
2.6.2 Foam Core Materials
2.6.2.1 Material Types
2.6.2.2 Foam Density
2.6.2.3 Advantages and Disadvantages
2.6.3 Honeycomb Core Materials
2.6.3.1 Honeycomb Material Types
2.6.3.2 Cell Shapes
2.6.3.3 Honeycomb Densities and Cell Sizes
2.6.4 Fluted Core
2.6.5 Syntactic Core
2.7 Syntactic Foams and Potting Compounds
2.7.1 Filler Materials for Potting Compounds, Resin Systems, and Adhesives
2.7.2 Other Fillers
2.8 Protective Coatings
2.8.1 Sealants
2.8.1.1 Old-Generation Thiokol Sealants
2.8.1.2 New-Generation Polythioether Sealants
2.8.1.3 Silicone Sealants
2.8.1.4 Viton Rubber Sealants
2.8.2 Primers
2.8.3 Finishes
2.8.4 Conductive Coatings
2.8.5 Erosion-Resistant Coatings
2.8.6 Other Protective Coatings
References
Bibliography
CHAPTER 3 Handling and Storage
3.1 Shipping and Receiving
3.2 Temperature Requirements
3.3 Storage Practices
3.3.1 Temperature Requirements
3.3.1.1 Dry Fabrics
3.3.1.2 Storage of Pre-preg, Film, and Paste Adhesives, Potting Compounds, and Primers
3.3.1.2.1 Thermoplastic Resins and Their Composites.
3.3.1.3 Storage of Sealants for Aircraft Use.
3.3.1.4 Storage of Consumable Items for Composite and Bonded Metal Repairs
3.3.2 Cleanliness and Damage Prevention
3.3.3 Moisture Damage Prevention
3.3.4 Identification
3.3.5 Release Notes and Approved Certificates
3.4 Shelf Life/Out-Time
3.5 Kitting
3.6 Recertification
3.7 Care of Materials in the Hangar or Workshop
CHAPTER 4 Manufacturing Techniques
4.1 Filament Winding
4.2 Lay-Up Methods for Fabrics and Tapes
4.2.1 Hand Lay-Up (Wet and Pre-preg Laminating)
4.2.2 Automated Lay-Up
4.3 Pultrusion
4.4 Resin Transfer Molding
4.5 Injection Molding
4.6 Tow Placement
4.7 Press Molding
4.8 Vacuum Bonding
4.9 Autoclave Bonding
4.10 Oven Curing
References
Other Useful Reading
CHAPTER 5 Original Design Criteria
5.1 Principal, Primary, and Secondary Structures
5.1.1 Sources of Damage to Composite Airframe Components
5.1.2 Consequences of Failure
5.2 Types of Composite Structures
5.2.1 Monolithic Laminated Structures (Solid Laminates)
5.2.2 Sandwich Structures
5.3 Ply Orientation
5.3.1 Warp Clock
5.3.2 Balance and Symmetry
5.3.3 Nesting and Stacking
5.4 Core Orientation and Other Design Characteristics
5.5 Operational Environment
5.5.1 Temperature
5.5.2 Humidity
5.5.3 Contaminants
5.5.4 Erosion
5.5.5 Thermal Stresses
5.5.6 Hygrothermal Effects
5.5.7 Fire Resistance
5.6 Electrical Requirements
5.6.1 Galvanic Corrosion
5.6.2 Electromagnetic Interference
5.6.3 Electrostatic Discharge
5.6.4 Lightning Strike Energy Dispersion
5.6.5 Radar Transmissivity
5.7 Mechanical Requirements
5.7.1 Tensile and Flexural Strength
5.7.2 Stiffness
5.7.3 Fatigue
5.7.4 Impact Resistance
5.7.5 Creep
5.8 Attachments/Joints
5.8.1 Bonded Joints
5.8.2 Mechanically Fastened/Riveted Joints.
5.9 Other Design Requirements
5.9.1 Aerodynamic Smoothness
5.9.2 Weight and Balance
References
CHAPTER 6 Safety and Environment
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Workshop Conditions for Good Bonding
6.3 Respirable Fibers and Dust
6.3.1 Fiberglass
6.3.2 Carbon and Graphite Fibers
6.3.3 Aramid Fibers
6.3.4 Sanding Dust
6.4 Fumes and Vapors
6.4.1 Resin Fumes
6.4.2 Solvent Vapors
6.4.3 Sealant Vapors
6.4.4 Coatings
6.4.5 Fuel
6.4.6 Acid Fumes and Splash
6.4.7 Exposure Limits
6.5 Skin Contact
6.5.1 Fibers in Contact with the Skin
6.5.2 Resins in Contact with the Skin
6.5.3 Solvents in Contact with the Skin
6.5.4 Selection of Suitable Gloves
6.5.5 Skin Creams for Personal Protection
6.6 Material Safety Data Sheets
6.7 Exothermic Reactions
6.8 Waste Disposal
6.9 Safety Procedures
6.9.1 Emergency Action First-Aid Procedures
6.9.2 General Safety Procedures
6.9.3 Personal Safety Precautions
6.9.4 Dermatitis
6.10 Action in the Event of a Chemical Spillage
6.11 Explosion Risk
6.12 Static Discharge and Fire Prevention
6.12.1 Static Discharge Prevention
6.12.2 Fire Prevention
6.13 Safety Requirements for Electrical Appliances
6.14 ISO Environmental Management Standards
References
Bibliography
CHAPTER 7 Damage and Repair Assessment
7.1 Visual Inspection
7.2 Tap Test
7.3 Ultrasonic Inspection
7.4 X-Ray Methods
7.5 Eddy Current Inspection
7.6 Thermography
7.7 Bond Testers
7.8 Moisture Meters
7.9 Drying of Composites Prior to Repair
7.10 Interferometry/Shearography
7.11 Damage Types
7.12 Sources of Mechanical Damage
7.13 Damage Mapping
7.13.1 Assessment of Damage Significance
References
CHAPTER 8 Source Documents
8.1 Revision Systems
8.2 Effectivity
8.3 Drawing Numbering Systems.
8.4 Internal Documents
8.5 Material and Process Specifications
8.6 Original Equipment Manufacturer Documents
8.7 Regulatory Documents
8.8 Airlines for America (formerly Air Transport Association of America) ATA 100 System
8.9 Aircraft Maintenance Manual
8.10 Component Maintenance Manual
8.11 Overhaul Manual
8.12 Illustrated Parts Catalog
8.13 Structural Repair Manual
8.14 Engine Manual
CHAPTER 9 Structural Repair Manual (SRM) Repair Method Selection
9.1 Component Identification
9.2 Damage Classification
9.2.1 Damage Terminology
9.2.2 Critical Areas
9.2.3 Allowable/Negligible Damage
9.2.4 Repairable Damage
9.2.5 Overhaul or Replace
9.2.6 Other Considerations
9.3 Repair Methods
9.3.1 Speedtape
9.3.2 Resin Sealing
9.3.3 Potted Repairs
9.3.4 Bolted Doublers (Metal Plates) and Bonded Doublers (Composite Patches)
9.3.5 Pre-cured Doublers Versus Co-cured Doublers
9.3.6 Room-Temperature Wet Lay-Up
9.3.7 Elevated-Temperature Wet Lay-Up
9.3.8 Pre-preg Repairs
9.3.9 Scarfed and Stepped-Lap Repairs
9.3.10 Composite Repairs to Metals
References
CHAPTER 10 Repair Techniques
10.1 Preparation
10.1.1 Paint Removal
10.1.2 Disbonding Methods
10.1.2.1 Disbonding Adhesively Bonded Metal Parts
10.1.2.2 Disbonding Composite Parts
10.1.3 Damage Removal
10.1.3.1 Damage Removal from Metal Parts
10.1.3.2 Removal of Skin and Doubler Material
10.1.3.3 Damage Removal from Composite Parts
10.1.3.4 Removal of Core Material
10.1.3.5 Removal of Surface Corrosion
10.1.4 Moisture and Contamination Removal
10.1.5 Surface Preparation of Composites: Repair Sanding and Ply Determination
10.1.5.1 Abrading
10.1.5.2 Taper Sanding/Scarfing
10.1.5.3 Step Sanding and Cutting
10.1.6 Water Break Test
10.1.7 Metallic Surface Preparation.
10.2 Typical Repairs.