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An Introduction to Optical Wireless Mobile Communications
Contents
1 Introduction
1.1 Setting the Scene
1.2 Challenges in Optical Wireless Communication Networking
1.2.1 Devices and Components
1.2.2 Optical Front-End Systems
1.2.3 Channel Models
1.2.4 Data Transmission Techniques
1.2.5 Medium Access Control Protocols
1.2.6 Interference Mitigation and Mobility Support
1.2.7 Networking and Protocols
1.3 Book Overview
1.4 Book Structure
References
2 A Brief History of Optical Wireless Communications
2.1 Introduction
2.2 A Brief History of Optics and Vision
2.3 History of Light from Newton to Einstein
2.4 History of Optical Wireless Communication Systems
2.5 Recent History of LED-Based Optical Wireless Communication
2.6 Development of Efficient Blue LED
2.7 Modern History of Visible Light Communications
2.8 Summary
References
3 Emerging Technology in Optical Wireless Communications
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Free-Space Optical Communications
3.2.1 Fundamentals of FSO Communications
3.2.2 FSO Communications with MIMO Techniques
3.2.3 FSO Communications with Orbital Angular Momentum (OAM)
3.2.4 FSO Communications Based on a Kramers-Kronig (KK) Receiver
3.2.5 FSO Communications in UAV-Based Networks
3.3 UV Communications
3.3.1 UV State-of-the-Art Devices
3.3.2 UV Channel Modeling
3.3.3 Open Issues and Future Trends
3.4 Optical Camera Communications
3.4.1 Image Sensors
3.4.2 Principle of OCC
3.4.3 Applications
3.4.4 Challenges and Practical Considerations
3.5 Summary
References
4 Applications and Future-Proofing Wireless Communications
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Artificial Intelligence and the Spectrum Crunch
4.2.1 The Role of Wireless Communications in Autonomous Systems
4.2.2 Network Traffic Trends
4.2.3 5G and Beyond.
4.3 Li-Fi Motivations
4.3.1 Higher Bandwidth in Optical Spectrum
4.3.2 Extreme Densification to the Next Level
4.3.3 Physical Layer Security (PLS)
4.3.4 Other Advantages
4.4 Applications
4.4.1 Defense and Cybersecurity
4.4.2 Aerospace and Aeronautical Communications
4.4.3 Underwater Communications
4.4.4 Data-Driven Cities
4.4.5 Vehicular Communications
4.5 Li-Fi Misconceptions
4.5.1 Will Li-Fi Take over Wi-Fi?
4.5.2 Will Signal Blockage Cause Serious Link Disruption?
4.5.3 Is There an Approach to Realize a UL Connection?
4.5.4 Can This TechnologyWork Outdoors?
4.5.5 Can the Lights Be Dimmed While Transmitting?
4.5.6 Does Li-Fi Cause Light Flickers?
4.6 Summary
References
5 Optical Wireless Communication Channel
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Channel Effects and Metrics
5.2.1 Channel Effects
5.2.2 Channel Metrics
5.2.3 Channel Decomposition
5.3 Front-End Channel
5.3.1 Exponential Function Approximation
5.3.2 First-Order Butterworth Filter Model
5.3.3 White LED Model
5.4 Optical Wireless Channel
5.4.1 LOS Channel
5.4.2 NLOS Channel
5.4.3 K-Factor
5.5 Deterministic NLOS Channel Simulation Approaches
5.5.1 Recursive Algorithm
5.5.2 Iterative Algorithm
5.5.3 DUSTIN Algorithm
5.5.4 Frequency-Domain Algorithm
5.5.5 Performance Evaluation
5.6 Monte Carlo NLOS Channel Simulation Approaches
5.6.1 Photon-Tracing Algorithm
5.6.2 Monte Carlo Ray-Shooting and Ray-Gathering Algorithms
5.6.3 Markov Chain Monte Carlo Algorithms
5.6.4 Performance Evaluation
5.7 Analytical NLOS Channel Modeling
5.7.1 Sphere-Integrating/Exponential-Decaying Model
5.7.2 Ceiling Bounce Model
5.7.3 Efficient Analytical Calculation Method
5.7.4 Performance Evaluation
5.8 Simulation Approach/Modeling Comparison
5.9 OWC Channel Characteristics.
5.9.1 Optical Wireless Channel Characteristics
5.9.2 Including the Front-End Channel
5.10 Summary
References
6 Enabling Technologies
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Front-End Devices and Systems
6.2.1 Transmitters
6.2.2 Receivers
6.3 Channel Noise
6.4 Modulation Techniques
6.4.1 Single-Carrier Modulation Techniques
6.4.2 OFDM-Based MCM
6.4.3 Multistream Unipolar OFDM
6.4.4 MCM Based on Other Transformations
6.4.5 Color-Based Transmission Techniques
6.5 MIMO Technologies
6.5.1 MIMO Systems in Li-Fi Networks
6.5.2 MIMO Functions
6.5.3 MIMO Channel Decorrelation
6.6 Summary
References
7 Beyond the Physical Layer
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Integration of Li-Fi Within Heterogeneous Networks
7.3 Multiaccess Control
7.3.1 Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)
7.3.2 Optical Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiple Access (O-OFDMA)
7.3.3 Optical Code Division Multiple Access (O-CDMA)
7.3.4 Optical Space Division Multiple Access (O-SDMA)
7.3.5 Carrier-Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance (CSMA/CA)
7.3.6 Power-Domain Non-Orthogonal Multiple Access (NOMA)
7.4 Resource Allocation in Li-Fi Systems
7.5 Interference Management in Li-Fi
7.5.1 Interference Cancellation Techniques
7.5.2 Interference Avoidance Techniques
7.6 Handover and Mobility Support
7.6.1 Horizontal Handover (HHO)
7.6.2 Vertical Handover
7.7 Summary
References
8 Standardization
8.1 Introduction
8.2 IEEE 802.15 Optical Wireless Communication Standards
8.2.1 Standard Development
8.2.2 Standard Features
8.2.3 Standard Specification
8.2.4 Standard Implementations
8.3 ITU-T G.9991 Standard
8.3.1 Standard Development
8.3.2 Standard Features and Specifications
8.3.3 Standard Implementations
8.4 IEEE 802.11bb Standard
8.4.1 Standard Development.
8.4.2 Physical Layer Specifications
8.5 Summary
References
9 Commercialization
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Li-Fi Market Potential and Opportunities
9.2.1 Market Overview
9.2.2 Key Trends and Drivers
9.2.3 Opportunities in 6G
9.3 Li-Fi Ecosystem
9.3.1 Li-Fi Consumer Product Provider
9.3.2 Lighting Infrastructure Provider
9.3.3 Chipset and Optical Component Providers
9.3.4 Utility and Application Providers
9.3.5 Research and Development Organization
9.3.6 End-Users
9.3.7 Establishing the Li-Fi Ecosystem
9.4 Use Cases
9.4.1 Indoor High-Speed Networking
9.4.2 Cyber Security and Defence
9.4.3 Industry, Aerospace, and Automotive
9.4.4 Smart Cities
9.4.5 Backhaul Solutions
9.4.6 Indoor Positioning
9.4.7 OCC Deployments
9.5 Commercialization Challenges
9.5.1 Optical Front Ends in Transmitters and Receivers
9.5.2 Integration to Mobile Devices
9.5.3 Lighting Considerations
9.6 Summary
References
10 Summary and Outlook
References
Acronyms and Abbreviations
About the Authors
Index.
Contents
1 Introduction
1.1 Setting the Scene
1.2 Challenges in Optical Wireless Communication Networking
1.2.1 Devices and Components
1.2.2 Optical Front-End Systems
1.2.3 Channel Models
1.2.4 Data Transmission Techniques
1.2.5 Medium Access Control Protocols
1.2.6 Interference Mitigation and Mobility Support
1.2.7 Networking and Protocols
1.3 Book Overview
1.4 Book Structure
References
2 A Brief History of Optical Wireless Communications
2.1 Introduction
2.2 A Brief History of Optics and Vision
2.3 History of Light from Newton to Einstein
2.4 History of Optical Wireless Communication Systems
2.5 Recent History of LED-Based Optical Wireless Communication
2.6 Development of Efficient Blue LED
2.7 Modern History of Visible Light Communications
2.8 Summary
References
3 Emerging Technology in Optical Wireless Communications
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Free-Space Optical Communications
3.2.1 Fundamentals of FSO Communications
3.2.2 FSO Communications with MIMO Techniques
3.2.3 FSO Communications with Orbital Angular Momentum (OAM)
3.2.4 FSO Communications Based on a Kramers-Kronig (KK) Receiver
3.2.5 FSO Communications in UAV-Based Networks
3.3 UV Communications
3.3.1 UV State-of-the-Art Devices
3.3.2 UV Channel Modeling
3.3.3 Open Issues and Future Trends
3.4 Optical Camera Communications
3.4.1 Image Sensors
3.4.2 Principle of OCC
3.4.3 Applications
3.4.4 Challenges and Practical Considerations
3.5 Summary
References
4 Applications and Future-Proofing Wireless Communications
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Artificial Intelligence and the Spectrum Crunch
4.2.1 The Role of Wireless Communications in Autonomous Systems
4.2.2 Network Traffic Trends
4.2.3 5G and Beyond.
4.3 Li-Fi Motivations
4.3.1 Higher Bandwidth in Optical Spectrum
4.3.2 Extreme Densification to the Next Level
4.3.3 Physical Layer Security (PLS)
4.3.4 Other Advantages
4.4 Applications
4.4.1 Defense and Cybersecurity
4.4.2 Aerospace and Aeronautical Communications
4.4.3 Underwater Communications
4.4.4 Data-Driven Cities
4.4.5 Vehicular Communications
4.5 Li-Fi Misconceptions
4.5.1 Will Li-Fi Take over Wi-Fi?
4.5.2 Will Signal Blockage Cause Serious Link Disruption?
4.5.3 Is There an Approach to Realize a UL Connection?
4.5.4 Can This TechnologyWork Outdoors?
4.5.5 Can the Lights Be Dimmed While Transmitting?
4.5.6 Does Li-Fi Cause Light Flickers?
4.6 Summary
References
5 Optical Wireless Communication Channel
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Channel Effects and Metrics
5.2.1 Channel Effects
5.2.2 Channel Metrics
5.2.3 Channel Decomposition
5.3 Front-End Channel
5.3.1 Exponential Function Approximation
5.3.2 First-Order Butterworth Filter Model
5.3.3 White LED Model
5.4 Optical Wireless Channel
5.4.1 LOS Channel
5.4.2 NLOS Channel
5.4.3 K-Factor
5.5 Deterministic NLOS Channel Simulation Approaches
5.5.1 Recursive Algorithm
5.5.2 Iterative Algorithm
5.5.3 DUSTIN Algorithm
5.5.4 Frequency-Domain Algorithm
5.5.5 Performance Evaluation
5.6 Monte Carlo NLOS Channel Simulation Approaches
5.6.1 Photon-Tracing Algorithm
5.6.2 Monte Carlo Ray-Shooting and Ray-Gathering Algorithms
5.6.3 Markov Chain Monte Carlo Algorithms
5.6.4 Performance Evaluation
5.7 Analytical NLOS Channel Modeling
5.7.1 Sphere-Integrating/Exponential-Decaying Model
5.7.2 Ceiling Bounce Model
5.7.3 Efficient Analytical Calculation Method
5.7.4 Performance Evaluation
5.8 Simulation Approach/Modeling Comparison
5.9 OWC Channel Characteristics.
5.9.1 Optical Wireless Channel Characteristics
5.9.2 Including the Front-End Channel
5.10 Summary
References
6 Enabling Technologies
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Front-End Devices and Systems
6.2.1 Transmitters
6.2.2 Receivers
6.3 Channel Noise
6.4 Modulation Techniques
6.4.1 Single-Carrier Modulation Techniques
6.4.2 OFDM-Based MCM
6.4.3 Multistream Unipolar OFDM
6.4.4 MCM Based on Other Transformations
6.4.5 Color-Based Transmission Techniques
6.5 MIMO Technologies
6.5.1 MIMO Systems in Li-Fi Networks
6.5.2 MIMO Functions
6.5.3 MIMO Channel Decorrelation
6.6 Summary
References
7 Beyond the Physical Layer
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Integration of Li-Fi Within Heterogeneous Networks
7.3 Multiaccess Control
7.3.1 Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)
7.3.2 Optical Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiple Access (O-OFDMA)
7.3.3 Optical Code Division Multiple Access (O-CDMA)
7.3.4 Optical Space Division Multiple Access (O-SDMA)
7.3.5 Carrier-Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance (CSMA/CA)
7.3.6 Power-Domain Non-Orthogonal Multiple Access (NOMA)
7.4 Resource Allocation in Li-Fi Systems
7.5 Interference Management in Li-Fi
7.5.1 Interference Cancellation Techniques
7.5.2 Interference Avoidance Techniques
7.6 Handover and Mobility Support
7.6.1 Horizontal Handover (HHO)
7.6.2 Vertical Handover
7.7 Summary
References
8 Standardization
8.1 Introduction
8.2 IEEE 802.15 Optical Wireless Communication Standards
8.2.1 Standard Development
8.2.2 Standard Features
8.2.3 Standard Specification
8.2.4 Standard Implementations
8.3 ITU-T G.9991 Standard
8.3.1 Standard Development
8.3.2 Standard Features and Specifications
8.3.3 Standard Implementations
8.4 IEEE 802.11bb Standard
8.4.1 Standard Development.
8.4.2 Physical Layer Specifications
8.5 Summary
References
9 Commercialization
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Li-Fi Market Potential and Opportunities
9.2.1 Market Overview
9.2.2 Key Trends and Drivers
9.2.3 Opportunities in 6G
9.3 Li-Fi Ecosystem
9.3.1 Li-Fi Consumer Product Provider
9.3.2 Lighting Infrastructure Provider
9.3.3 Chipset and Optical Component Providers
9.3.4 Utility and Application Providers
9.3.5 Research and Development Organization
9.3.6 End-Users
9.3.7 Establishing the Li-Fi Ecosystem
9.4 Use Cases
9.4.1 Indoor High-Speed Networking
9.4.2 Cyber Security and Defence
9.4.3 Industry, Aerospace, and Automotive
9.4.4 Smart Cities
9.4.5 Backhaul Solutions
9.4.6 Indoor Positioning
9.4.7 OCC Deployments
9.5 Commercialization Challenges
9.5.1 Optical Front Ends in Transmitters and Receivers
9.5.2 Integration to Mobile Devices
9.5.3 Lighting Considerations
9.6 Summary
References
10 Summary and Outlook
References
Acronyms and Abbreviations
About the Authors
Index.