Intro
Preface
Contents
1 Introduction: Functions and Performances Governed by the Work Function
1.1 Why is the Work Function Important?
1.2 Contents of the Following Chapters
References
2 What is the Work Function?: Definition and Factors that Determine the Work Function
2.1 Definition of the Work Function
2.2 Origin of the Work Function
2.3 Factors Determining the Work Function
2.4 Effect of Temperature on the Work Function
2.5 Inhomogeneity of the Work Function
References
3 Modification of the Work Function
3.1 Mixing Elements

3.1.1 Substitutional Alloys
3.1.2 Interstitials (Metal Carbides and Nitrides)
3.1.3 Intermetallic Compounds (Ordered Alloys)
3.1.4 Two Elements with Miscibility Gap
3.2 Surface Termination
3.3 Adsorption or Segregation
3.4 Deposition
References
4 Measurement of Work Function
4.1 Utilizing Electron Emission Current Measurement
4.1.1 Thermal Emission
4.1.2 Field Emission
4.1.3 Photoelectron Emission
4.2 Utilizing Electron Emission Spectroscopy
4.2.1 Photoelectron Emission Yield Spectroscopy (PYS)

4.2.2 Secondary Electron Cutoff Spectroscopy (UPS, XPS, AES ...)
4.3 Utilizing Contact Potential Difference Measurement
4.3.1 Kelvin Probe Method
4.3.2 Diode Method
4.4 Other Methods
4.4.1 Photoemission of Adsorbed Xenon (PAX)
References
5 Modification of Band Alignment via Work Function Control
5.1 Ideal Band Alignment
5.2 Modification of Band Alignment
References
6 Advanced Models for Practical Devices
6.1 S Parameter: Indicator of Nonideality
6.2 Origin of Nonideality
6.2.1 Metal-Induced Gap States (MIGS) Model

6.2.2 Disorder-Induced Gap States (DIGS) Model
6.2.3 Interface-Induced Gap States (IFIGS) Model
6.3 Charge Neutrality Level (CNL) and S Parameter
6.4 Modification of S Parameter by Inserting Insulator
6.5 Generalized CNL
References
7 Utilization of Interface Potential
7.1 Control of Interface-Terminating Species
7.2 Insertion of a 1-ML-Thick Material
References