Intro
Acknowledgements
Contents
Abbreviations
List of Figures
List of Tables
1 The Linguistic Ecology of Multilingual Communities
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Language Ecology and History in the Definition of National Languages
1.2.1 Multilingualism
1.2.2 Language Ecology
1.2.3 Standard Languages in Multilingual Societies
1.2.4 The Standard Language Ideology (SLI) in Multilingual Societies
1.3 Ideologies of Language and Cultural Contact
1.4 Conclusion
References

2 The Sociolinguistics of Size: How Multilingualism in a Small Society Differs from a Large One
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Defining Macau
2.2.1 Naming Macau
2.2.2 Administration of Macau
2.2.3 Macau's Economy
2.3 Sociolinguistic, Socio-Economic and Historical Factors Related to Macau's Linguistic Ecology
2.4 Conclusion
References
3 Historical Contexts of Multilingualism: Chinese Languages of Macau (1500-1999)
3.1 Introduction
3.2 The Official Status of Chinese in Macau
3.3 Cantonese
3.4 Hokkien
3.5 Other Chinese Languages
3.5.1 Chiu Chau
3.5.2 Hakka

3.6 Putonghua
3.6.1 Standardisation of Putonghua (Spoken Standard)
3.6.2 Standardisation of Standard Written Chinese
3.7 Conclusion
References
4 Historical Contexts of Multilingualism: Non-Chinese Languages of Macau (1500-1999)
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Colonial Languages
4.2.1 Portuguese
4.2.2 English
4.2.3 Spanish, Dutch and Others
4.3 Regional Non-Chinese Languages
4.3.1 Japanese
4.3.2 Malay
4.3.3 Konkani and Hindi
4.3.4 Burmese
4.3.5 Timorese and Other South East Asian Languages
4.4 Contact Languages
4.4.1 Makista

4.4.2 Chinese Pidgin English
4.5 Conclusion
References
5 Overview of Social and Educational Changes to Macau: Twenty Years After the 1999 Handover
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Macau Society Since 1999
5.2.1 Population and Demographic Changes
5.2.2 Economic and Social Developments
5.2.3 Educational Development
5.3 Linguistic Ecology
5.3.1 Official Language Policy
5.3.2 Chinese: Cantonese, Putonghua and Other Chinese Languages
5.3.3 Portuguese
5.3.4 English
5.4 Educational Languages and Language Policy
5.4.1 Discourse of Integration

5.4.2 Discourse of Autonomy
5.4.3 Merging the Discourses of Integration and Autonomy
5.5 Conclusion
References
6 Language and Educational Language Policy in Childhood Education: Pre-primary and Primary Education
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Languages and Language Ecology
6.3 Pre-Primary Schools and Mediums of Instruction
6.4 Primary Schools and Mediums of Instruction
6.5 Language Curriculum and Language Policy
6.5.1 Pre-Primary Curriculum
6.5.2 Primary Curriculum
6.6 Conclusion
References