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Part 1. Theory
To Understand Economics, Follow the Money: To Understand Ecosystems, Follow the Energy
Two Views of Ecology, Evolution, and Conservation
Why I Wrote this Book
Dualities Still Impede Conservation Efforts
The Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform of Biodiversity
Targets for Conservation
Evolving Objectives
Literature Review
Updating Ecosystem Ecology
References
What Can We Learn by Studying Ecosystems that We Can't Learn from Studying Populations?
The Predator-Prey Conundrum
The Serengeti Ecosystem
Evolution in the "Ecological Theater"
Predator-Prey Interactions Tell Only Part of the Story
Evolution in the "Thermodynamic Theater"
References
A Thermodynamic Definition of Ecosystems
Ecosystems in the 20th Century
Cycling of Strontium-90
Cesium-137 in Food Chains
Recycling of Isotopes in Norwegian Sheep
Ecological Energetics
Is it Time to Bury the Ecosystem Concept?
A Thermodynamic Definition of Life
A Thermodynamic Definition of Ecosystems
The Phase Transition between Order and Chaos
References
Thermodynamic Characteristics of Ecosystems
Equilibrium
The Equilibrium Law
Thermodynamic Equilibrium
Open Thermodynamic Systems
Ecosystems are Thermodynamically Open Non-Equilibrium Systems
Work is Performed by Non-equilibrium Systems
Advantage of a Thermodynamically Open System
4.3 Ecosystems are Entropic
4.4 Ecosystems are Cybernetic
Cybernetic Systems
Economic Systems are Cybernetic Ecosystems are Cybernetic
The Ecosystem Feedback Function
Indirect vs. Direct Feedback
Deviation Dampening and Amplifying Feedback
Set Points
Ecosystems are Autocatalytic
Ecosystems have Boundaries
Ecosystems are Hierarchical
Hierarchy in Physical Systems
Hierarchy in Ecological Systems
Common Currencies
Macro-and Micro-System Models
Why an Ecosystem Model that Includes Everything is not Possible
A Nested Marine Community
Ecosystems are Deterministic
Ecosystems are Information Rich
An Engineering Definition of Information
Information to Facilitate Exchange
High Energy Information
Low Energy Information
Information Theory
Genetic Information
Ecosystems are Non-Teleological
Criticisms of Ecosystem Models
References
Ecosystem Control: A Top-Down View
Two Ways to Look at Systems
Composing and Decomposing Trophic Webs
Decomposers in Soil Organic Matter
Decomposers in Marshes and Mangroves
Control of Systems
Top-Down vs. Bottom-Up
Top-Down Exogenous Control
Exogenous Impacts and Stability
Top-Down Endogenous Control
Endogenous Control through Nutrient Recycling
Autocatalysis
Control of Microbial Activity
Inhibition of Microbial Activity by Leaf Sclerophylly
Inhibition of Microbial Activity Chemical Defenses
Inhibition of Microbial Activity by Ecological Stoichiometry
The Synchrony Principle
The Decay Law
Direct Nutrient Cycling
The Role of Animals
Indirect Interactions
Marine Systems
Nutrient and Energy Recycling
Exogenous Control
Control in Lakes
Control in Managed Ecosystems
References
Ecosystem Control: A Bottom-Up View
Species as Arbitrageurs of Energy
Relation Between Rate of Flow and Mass in Hydraulic Systems
Relation Between Population Biomass and Rate of Energy Flow
Equilibrium
Mechanisms of Adjustment
Adjustments and Climate Change
Bird Populations
Dis-equilibrium
Population Instability vs. Ecosystem Instability
Control by Interactions: Direct vs. Indirect
Indirect Interactions
Direct Interactions
Predator - Prey
Mutualisms
Competition
Decomposition
Parasitism and Disease
Commensalism and Amensalism
Persistence of Negative Interactions
References
Ecosystem Stability
Background
A Thermodynamic Definition
Regime Shift
Metastability
Pulsed Stability
Resistance and Resilience
Species Richness and Functional Stability
Species Richness and Cultural Values
Keystone Species, and Population and Ecosystem Stability
7.5.1 Keystone Species in the Yellowstone region of Wyoming
References
8. Case Studies of Ecosystem Control and Stability
Walden
"Harmony in Nature"
Feedback Produces Nature's "Harmony"
Feedback Mechanisms
Perturbations in Amazon Rain Forests
Top-Down Control
The San Carlos Project: A Small-scale, Low Intensity, Short Duration Disturbance
8.3.2 The Jarí Project: A Large-scale, High Intensity, Long Duration Disturbance
Bottom-Up Control
The El Verde Project
The Long-Term Ecological Research Project in Puerto Rico
The Lago Guri Island Project
The Biological Dynamics of Tropical Rainforest Fragments Project
What have Case Studies Taught us about Stability of Tropical Ecosystems?
Tropical Ecosystems are Stable
Tropical Ecosystems are Unstable
Energy Flow in Tropical Savannas and Rain Forests
Insects in Tropical Ecosystems
Application of Lessons to Other Regions
Relevance to Temperate Zones
Relevance to Aquatic Ecosystems
The Experimental Lakes Project (Ecosystem Control of Species)
Lake Mendota Studies (Species Control of Ecosystems)
8.7 Case Studies as Tests of Thermodynamic Theory
References
Entropy and Maximum Power
Entropy
9.2 Entropy in a Steel Bar
Thermodynamic Equilibrium
Entropic Gradients
Capturing and Storing Entropy
Evapotranspiration and Entropy Reduction
Life is a Balance between Storing and Releasing Entropy
The Law of Maximum Entropy Production
Energy for Metabolism as well as Growth
Unassisted Entropy Capture is a Unique Characteristic of Life.-9.6Entropy Storage by Ecosystems
9.6.1 What Causes Entropy to be Stored?
9.7 Capturing Pressure
9.8 Entropy and Time
9.8.1 Time's Speed Regulator
Efficiency of Energy Transformations
Passage of Time for Cats
9.9The Maximum Power Principle.-9.10 Optimum Efficiencies for a Truck and its Driver.-9.11 Sustainability
References
A Thermodynamic View of Succession
10.1 The Population View
10.2 The Thermodynamic View
10.2.1 Leaf Area Index and Succession
10.2.2 Power Output as a Function of Leaf Area Index
10.2.3 What Causes Changes in Leaf Area Index?
10.2.4 Maximum Entropy Production Principle
10.2.5 Successional Ecosystems Move Further from Thermodynamic Equilibrium
10.2.6 Entropy Storage by Animals
10.3 The Strategy of Ecosystem Development
A Problem with Odum's Strategy
Why Power Output Continues to Increase
Revised Definition of Maximum Power
Costs of Ecosystem Stabilization
Transactional Costs
Succession, Power Output, and Efficiency
10.5.1 Kleiber's Law
Are Ecosystems Spendthrifts?
Interactions Between Species Facilitate Increase in Power Output
Facilitation
Tolerance
Inhibition
Intermediate Disturbance Hypothesis
Nutrient Use Efficiency during Succession
Succession Following Logging vs Following Agriculture
10.10 Thermodynamic View of Succession: Implications for Resource Management
References
Panarchy
The Universal Cycle of Systems
Panarchy
Thermodynamic Interpretation of the Sacred Rules
11.2.1 Growth and Consolidation
11.2.2 Collapse
Renewal
Sub-systems
Panarchy over 2 Billion Years of Evolution
Consolidation, Bureaucracy and System Collapse
Bureaucracy in Action (Case Studies)
Case Study: Panarchy in the Georgia Piedmont
Thermodynamic Interpretation
References
12. A Thermodynamic View of Evolution
12.1 Life - A Physicist's View
12.1.1 Life is Produced by Capturing Entropy
12.1.2 The Origin of Life
12.2 Two Approaches to Evolution
12.2.1 The Eco-Evo-Devo View
12.2.2 The Thermodynamic View
12.2.3 Fitness
12.2.4 The "Goal" of Evolution
12.3 The Relationship between Species and Environment
12.3.1 Evolution's "Theater"
12.3.2 Is Evolution Stochastic or Deterministic?
12.4 Ecosystem Evolution
12.4.1 Succession was the Clue
12.4.2 Ecosystems Moved away from Equilibrium
12.4.3 Thermodynamic Mechanisms
12.4.4 Biological Mechanisms
12.4.5 Ecosystem Fitness
12.4.6 Ecosystems Evolve One Step at a Time
12.5.
The Origin of Ecosystems
12.5.1 Origin of Feedback Loops
12.5.2 Origin of Trophic Levels
12.5.3 Why are there Trophic Levels?
12.6 The "Goal" of Ecosystem Evolution
12.6.1 Conflicting Goals?
12.6.2 "Motivations" of Species
12.6.3 The Earth Ecosystem
12.6.4 Why is there Resistance to the Idea of Ecosystem Evolution?
12.6.5 Evolution of Economic Systems
12.7 A Thermodynamic Model of Ecosystem Evolution
12.7.1 Network Models
12.7.2 Increase in Complexity of Trophic Webs
12.7.3 Evolution of Trophic Webs
12.7.4 Life Moves Ashore
12.8 Biodiversity and the Five Great Extinctions
12.8.1 The Cretaceous-Tertiary (K-T) Boundary Extinction
12.8.2The Amazing Sustainability of Trophic Chains
12.8.3 A Test of Thermodynamic Theory
12.9 Panarchy and Evolution
12.10 Thermodynamic Requirements for Living Systems on Other Planets
References
Why is Species Diversity Higher in the Tropics?
13.1 Tropical Explorations
13.2 A Few Theories
13.3 A Thermodynamic Explanation
13.3.1 The Latitudinal Energy Gradient
13.3.2 The Latitudinal Productivity Gradient
13.3.3 The Data
13.3.4 Other Factors Affecting Productivity
13.4 Empirical Evidence for a High Productivity High Diversity Correlation
13.5 Humboldt's Enigma
13.5.1 Are Productivity and Species Richness Correlated on Tropical
Mountains?
13.6 The Mechanism Linking Productivity and Diversity
13.7 Answer to "Why is Species Diversity Higher in the Tropics?"
13.7.1 Differences within the Tropics
13.8 Why is Species Diversity Low at High Latitudes?
13.9 An Economic Perspective on D.
Part 1. Theory
To Understand Economics, Follow the Money: To Understand Ecosystems, Follow the Energy
Two Views of Ecology, Evolution, and Conservation
Why I Wrote this Book
Dualities Still Impede Conservation Efforts
The Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform of Biodiversity
Targets for Conservation
Evolving Objectives
Literature Review
Updating Ecosystem Ecology
References
What Can We Learn by Studying Ecosystems that We Can't Learn from Studying Populations?
The Predator-Prey Conundrum
The Serengeti Ecosystem
Evolution in the "Ecological Theater"
Predator-Prey Interactions Tell Only Part of the Story
Evolution in the "Thermodynamic Theater"
References
A Thermodynamic Definition of Ecosystems
Ecosystems in the 20th Century
Cycling of Strontium-90
Cesium-137 in Food Chains
Recycling of Isotopes in Norwegian Sheep
Ecological Energetics
Is it Time to Bury the Ecosystem Concept?
A Thermodynamic Definition of Life
A Thermodynamic Definition of Ecosystems
The Phase Transition between Order and Chaos
References
Thermodynamic Characteristics of Ecosystems
Equilibrium
The Equilibrium Law
Thermodynamic Equilibrium
Open Thermodynamic Systems
Ecosystems are Thermodynamically Open Non-Equilibrium Systems
Work is Performed by Non-equilibrium Systems
Advantage of a Thermodynamically Open System
4.3 Ecosystems are Entropic
4.4 Ecosystems are Cybernetic
Cybernetic Systems
Economic Systems are Cybernetic Ecosystems are Cybernetic
The Ecosystem Feedback Function
Indirect vs. Direct Feedback
Deviation Dampening and Amplifying Feedback
Set Points
Ecosystems are Autocatalytic
Ecosystems have Boundaries
Ecosystems are Hierarchical
Hierarchy in Physical Systems
Hierarchy in Ecological Systems
Common Currencies
Macro-and Micro-System Models
Why an Ecosystem Model that Includes Everything is not Possible
A Nested Marine Community
Ecosystems are Deterministic
Ecosystems are Information Rich
An Engineering Definition of Information
Information to Facilitate Exchange
High Energy Information
Low Energy Information
Information Theory
Genetic Information
Ecosystems are Non-Teleological
Criticisms of Ecosystem Models
References
Ecosystem Control: A Top-Down View
Two Ways to Look at Systems
Composing and Decomposing Trophic Webs
Decomposers in Soil Organic Matter
Decomposers in Marshes and Mangroves
Control of Systems
Top-Down vs. Bottom-Up
Top-Down Exogenous Control
Exogenous Impacts and Stability
Top-Down Endogenous Control
Endogenous Control through Nutrient Recycling
Autocatalysis
Control of Microbial Activity
Inhibition of Microbial Activity by Leaf Sclerophylly
Inhibition of Microbial Activity Chemical Defenses
Inhibition of Microbial Activity by Ecological Stoichiometry
The Synchrony Principle
The Decay Law
Direct Nutrient Cycling
The Role of Animals
Indirect Interactions
Marine Systems
Nutrient and Energy Recycling
Exogenous Control
Control in Lakes
Control in Managed Ecosystems
References
Ecosystem Control: A Bottom-Up View
Species as Arbitrageurs of Energy
Relation Between Rate of Flow and Mass in Hydraulic Systems
Relation Between Population Biomass and Rate of Energy Flow
Equilibrium
Mechanisms of Adjustment
Adjustments and Climate Change
Bird Populations
Dis-equilibrium
Population Instability vs. Ecosystem Instability
Control by Interactions: Direct vs. Indirect
Indirect Interactions
Direct Interactions
Predator - Prey
Mutualisms
Competition
Decomposition
Parasitism and Disease
Commensalism and Amensalism
Persistence of Negative Interactions
References
Ecosystem Stability
Background
A Thermodynamic Definition
Regime Shift
Metastability
Pulsed Stability
Resistance and Resilience
Species Richness and Functional Stability
Species Richness and Cultural Values
Keystone Species, and Population and Ecosystem Stability
7.5.1 Keystone Species in the Yellowstone region of Wyoming
References
8. Case Studies of Ecosystem Control and Stability
Walden
"Harmony in Nature"
Feedback Produces Nature's "Harmony"
Feedback Mechanisms
Perturbations in Amazon Rain Forests
Top-Down Control
The San Carlos Project: A Small-scale, Low Intensity, Short Duration Disturbance
8.3.2 The Jarí Project: A Large-scale, High Intensity, Long Duration Disturbance
Bottom-Up Control
The El Verde Project
The Long-Term Ecological Research Project in Puerto Rico
The Lago Guri Island Project
The Biological Dynamics of Tropical Rainforest Fragments Project
What have Case Studies Taught us about Stability of Tropical Ecosystems?
Tropical Ecosystems are Stable
Tropical Ecosystems are Unstable
Energy Flow in Tropical Savannas and Rain Forests
Insects in Tropical Ecosystems
Application of Lessons to Other Regions
Relevance to Temperate Zones
Relevance to Aquatic Ecosystems
The Experimental Lakes Project (Ecosystem Control of Species)
Lake Mendota Studies (Species Control of Ecosystems)
8.7 Case Studies as Tests of Thermodynamic Theory
References
Entropy and Maximum Power
Entropy
9.2 Entropy in a Steel Bar
Thermodynamic Equilibrium
Entropic Gradients
Capturing and Storing Entropy
Evapotranspiration and Entropy Reduction
Life is a Balance between Storing and Releasing Entropy
The Law of Maximum Entropy Production
Energy for Metabolism as well as Growth
Unassisted Entropy Capture is a Unique Characteristic of Life.-9.6Entropy Storage by Ecosystems
9.6.1 What Causes Entropy to be Stored?
9.7 Capturing Pressure
9.8 Entropy and Time
9.8.1 Time's Speed Regulator
Efficiency of Energy Transformations
Passage of Time for Cats
9.9The Maximum Power Principle.-9.10 Optimum Efficiencies for a Truck and its Driver.-9.11 Sustainability
References
A Thermodynamic View of Succession
10.1 The Population View
10.2 The Thermodynamic View
10.2.1 Leaf Area Index and Succession
10.2.2 Power Output as a Function of Leaf Area Index
10.2.3 What Causes Changes in Leaf Area Index?
10.2.4 Maximum Entropy Production Principle
10.2.5 Successional Ecosystems Move Further from Thermodynamic Equilibrium
10.2.6 Entropy Storage by Animals
10.3 The Strategy of Ecosystem Development
A Problem with Odum's Strategy
Why Power Output Continues to Increase
Revised Definition of Maximum Power
Costs of Ecosystem Stabilization
Transactional Costs
Succession, Power Output, and Efficiency
10.5.1 Kleiber's Law
Are Ecosystems Spendthrifts?
Interactions Between Species Facilitate Increase in Power Output
Facilitation
Tolerance
Inhibition
Intermediate Disturbance Hypothesis
Nutrient Use Efficiency during Succession
Succession Following Logging vs Following Agriculture
10.10 Thermodynamic View of Succession: Implications for Resource Management
References
Panarchy
The Universal Cycle of Systems
Panarchy
Thermodynamic Interpretation of the Sacred Rules
11.2.1 Growth and Consolidation
11.2.2 Collapse
Renewal
Sub-systems
Panarchy over 2 Billion Years of Evolution
Consolidation, Bureaucracy and System Collapse
Bureaucracy in Action (Case Studies)
Case Study: Panarchy in the Georgia Piedmont
Thermodynamic Interpretation
References
12. A Thermodynamic View of Evolution
12.1 Life - A Physicist's View
12.1.1 Life is Produced by Capturing Entropy
12.1.2 The Origin of Life
12.2 Two Approaches to Evolution
12.2.1 The Eco-Evo-Devo View
12.2.2 The Thermodynamic View
12.2.3 Fitness
12.2.4 The "Goal" of Evolution
12.3 The Relationship between Species and Environment
12.3.1 Evolution's "Theater"
12.3.2 Is Evolution Stochastic or Deterministic?
12.4 Ecosystem Evolution
12.4.1 Succession was the Clue
12.4.2 Ecosystems Moved away from Equilibrium
12.4.3 Thermodynamic Mechanisms
12.4.4 Biological Mechanisms
12.4.5 Ecosystem Fitness
12.4.6 Ecosystems Evolve One Step at a Time
12.5.
The Origin of Ecosystems
12.5.1 Origin of Feedback Loops
12.5.2 Origin of Trophic Levels
12.5.3 Why are there Trophic Levels?
12.6 The "Goal" of Ecosystem Evolution
12.6.1 Conflicting Goals?
12.6.2 "Motivations" of Species
12.6.3 The Earth Ecosystem
12.6.4 Why is there Resistance to the Idea of Ecosystem Evolution?
12.6.5 Evolution of Economic Systems
12.7 A Thermodynamic Model of Ecosystem Evolution
12.7.1 Network Models
12.7.2 Increase in Complexity of Trophic Webs
12.7.3 Evolution of Trophic Webs
12.7.4 Life Moves Ashore
12.8 Biodiversity and the Five Great Extinctions
12.8.1 The Cretaceous-Tertiary (K-T) Boundary Extinction
12.8.2The Amazing Sustainability of Trophic Chains
12.8.3 A Test of Thermodynamic Theory
12.9 Panarchy and Evolution
12.10 Thermodynamic Requirements for Living Systems on Other Planets
References
Why is Species Diversity Higher in the Tropics?
13.1 Tropical Explorations
13.2 A Few Theories
13.3 A Thermodynamic Explanation
13.3.1 The Latitudinal Energy Gradient
13.3.2 The Latitudinal Productivity Gradient
13.3.3 The Data
13.3.4 Other Factors Affecting Productivity
13.4 Empirical Evidence for a High Productivity High Diversity Correlation
13.5 Humboldt's Enigma
13.5.1 Are Productivity and Species Richness Correlated on Tropical
Mountains?
13.6 The Mechanism Linking Productivity and Diversity
13.7 Answer to "Why is Species Diversity Higher in the Tropics?"
13.7.1 Differences within the Tropics
13.8 Why is Species Diversity Low at High Latitudes?
13.9 An Economic Perspective on D.