Intro
Preface
Contents
1: The Most Basic Concepts in Biostatistics
1.1 Statistical Inference: From a Sample to the Population
1.2 Internal and External Validity
1.3 Null Hypothesis Significance Testing
1.4 The Almighty P-Value
1.5 Limitations of P-Values
1.6 More About the Meaning of the P-Value
1.7 Two-Sided P-Values Are the Norm in Medicine
1.8 Confidence Intervals
1.9 Type 1 and Type 2 Statistical Errors
1.10 We All Do Frequentist Statistics
1.11 Bayesian Statistics: Credible Intervals, Probability Estimates
1.12 Confounding

1.13 Interaction or Effect Modification
1.14 Collider Bias
2: Assessment of Diagnostic Tests
2.1 Sensitivity, Specificity, Predictive Values
2.2 Likelihood Ratios
2.3 Receiver Operating Characteristic (ROC) Curves
2.3.1 Effect of Threshold Changes on Predictive Values
2.4 F-Score
2.5 Common Biases in the Evaluation of Diagnostic Tests
2.5.1 Spectrum Bias
2.5.2 Post-Test Referral Bias
2.5.3 Biased Gold Standard
2.5.4 Highly Selected Populations
2.6 Avoiding Biases
2.7 Checklist for the Assessment of a Diagnostic Test
2.8 Screening

3: Use of a Diagnostic Test
3.1 The Two-by-Two Table in Different Scenarios
3.2 Pretest Probability Estimates
3.3 Likelihood Ratios and Fagan Nomogram
3.4 Use of Predictive Models
4: Observational Studies
4.1 Observational Studies. General Considerations
4.2 Cross-Sectional Studies
4.3 Odds Ratio
4.4 Case Control Studies
4.4.1 Importance of the Control Group
4.4.2 Ascertainment or Diagnostic Bias
4.4.3 Recall Bias
4.4.4 Interviewer Bias
4.4.5 Nested Case-Control Studies
4.5 Prospective Cohort Studies
4.5.1 Selection Bias

4.5.2 Confounding by Indication (Prescription Bias)
4.5.3 Immortal Time Bias
4.5.4 Attrition of those Susceptible
4.5.5 Protopathic Bias
4.5.6 Chronology (Secular) Bias
4.5.7 Non-Randomized Outcomes Studies
4.5.8 Checklist for Observational Studies
5: Commonly Used Statistics
5.1 Relative Risk
5.2 Relative Risk Reduction
5.3 Number Needed to Treat
5.4 Number Needed to Harm
5.5 Censoring
5.6 Kaplan-Meier Curves
5.6.1 Incorrect Kaplan-Meier Formatting
5.6.2 Censoring and Numbers at Risk
5.7 Hazard Ratio

5.7.1 Benefits of an Adjusted Hazard Ratio
5.7.2 Assessing Palliative Treatments
5.7.3 The Proportionality Assumption
5.8 The Log-Rank Statistic
5.8.1 Observed Vs. Expected Event Rates in Month 1
5.8.2 Observed Vs. Expected Event Rates in Month 2
5.8.3 Observed Vs. Expected Event Rates in Month 3
5.8.4 Obtain a Global Chi-Square Test
5.9 Odds Ratio
5.10 Vaccine Efficacy
5.11 Attributable Proportion
6: Randomized Clinical Trials
6.1 Why Do We Need Randomized Trials?
6.2 Types of Clinical Trials by Phase