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Table of Contents
Front Cover
Foreword
Acknowledgments
About the Authors
Abbreviations
Overview
Introduction
Main findings
Countries' policy responses
Lessons learned and policy recommendations
Notes
References
Chapter 1 COVID-19 and Migration in the Mediterranean Region
Introduction
Mobility trends in the region
COVID-19 in the Mediterranean region
Management and adjustment of mobility in response to the pandemic
Notes
References
Chapter 2 The Impacts of COVID-19 on Migrants and Their Families
Introduction
Mobility-related vulnerabilities of migrants and refugees during the pandemic
A mobile population at greater health risk
The pandemic's economic impacts
Annex 2A Methodology for defining jobs that cannot be performed from home
Notes
References
Chapter 3 Mobility-Related Implications of COVID-19 for Receiving Countries
Introduction
Labor disruptions in receiving countries
Implications of COVID-19 for long-term migrant integration
Openness toward migration, before and after COVID-19
Notes
References
Chapter 4 Policy Directions
From findings to policy directions
Proposed policy actions
Closing remarks
Notes
References
Boxes
Box 1.1 Issues with COVID-19-related data
Box 1.2 Data limitations in measuring migration flows during the COVID-19 pandemic
Box 2.1 The "healthy immigrant" paradox
Box 2.2 Refugees' access to health care in Turkey
Box 2.3 Impact of COVID-19 on refugees in Turkey
Box 2.4 Costs of sending remittances in the extended Mediterranean region
Box 3.1 The agriculture industry in Italy
Box 3.2 COVID-19, automation, and migration
Box 4.1 The EU Digital COVID Certificate, or Green Pass
Box 4.2 Multilateral public health efforts in Africa.
Box 4.3 Interventions introduced during the pandemic to simplify hiring procedures for essential workers
Box 4.4 Measures to expand migrants' access to health care and social welfare during the COVID-19 crisis
Box 4.5 Employment retention and promotion policies open to migrants during the COVID-19 crisis
Box 4.6 Digital tools to support migrants' reintegration
Box 4.7 Can diaspora engagements be strengthened in the aftermath of the pandemic?
Box 4.8 The EU's New Pact on Migration and Asylum
Box 4.9 The Western Balkan Regulation
Box 4.10 The German "Triple Win" program
Box 4.11 Improving the accuracy of migration coverage in North and West Africa
Figures
Figure O.1 Share of Mediterranean and GCC countries and economies with mobility restrictions, by type, 2020-21
Figure O.2 Land and sea arrivals of migrants at the EU's main points of entry and in selected Mediterranean countries, 2019-21
Figure O.3 Changes in migrant smuggling from West and North Africa since the start of the COVID-19 pandemic
Figure O.4 Share of European countries with labor shortages, by occupation, and share of foreign workers in those occupations, 2018-19
Figure O.5 Share of people with unmet health needs in selected Mediterranean countries, by place of birth, 2016
Figure O.6 Change in employment rate between 2019 and 2020 in selected Mediterranean countries, by quarter and place of birth
Figure O.7 Food insecurity among refugee households in Turkey, before the pandemic
Figure O.8 ICT availability at home for 15-year-old students in selected Mediterranean countries, 2018
Figure O.9 Proposed policy objectives and actions
Figure 1.1 Share of world's population, emigrants, and immigrants, by region, 2020.
Figure 1.2 Top five migrant sending and receiving economies in the extended Mediterranean region, in relative and absolute terms, 2020
Figure 1.3 Shares of intraregional Mediterranean and GCC migration, by corridor, 2020
Figure 1.4 Top 20 migrant corridors in the combined Mediterranean and GCC region, 2020
Figure 1.5 Mediterranean corridors with the highest shares of low-skilled migrants, 2010
Figure 1.6 Mediterranean corridors with the highest shares of high-skilled migrants, 2010
Figure 1.7 Top 20 refugee corridors in the Mediterranean and GCC region, 2020
Figure B1.1.1 COVID-19 tests per million people per day, by extended Mediterranean subregion, February 2020 to October 2021
Figure B1.1.2 Daily new confirmed COVID-19 cases in relation to daily tests, extended Mediterranean versus non-extended Mediterranean regions, January 2020 to October 2021
Figure 1.8 Share of Mediterranean and GCC countries and economies with mobility restrictions, by type, 2020-21
Figure 1.9 Flights in the Mediterranean region, by subregion, October 2019 to October 2021
Figure 1.10 First-instance asylum applications in selected European Mediterranean countries, 2019 to 2021
Figure 1.11 Land and sea arrivals at the EU's main points of entry and in selected Mediterranean countries, 2019 to 2021
Figure B1.2.1 Destinations of emigrants from Senegal, by data source
Figure B1.2.2 Destinations of emigrants from Nigeria, by data source
Figure 1.12 Changes in migrant stocks from selected African countries to selected destination countries, April 2020 to January 2021
Figure 2.1 Illegal border crossings to Europe, by route, January 2019 to August 2021
Figure 2.2 Changes in smuggling of migrants from West and North Africa since the beginning of the COVID-19 pandemic, as of July 2020.
Figure 2.3 Excess mortality in France, by place of origin, March to April 2020
Figure 2.4 Share of population in overcrowded housing, by origin status, in selected northern Mediterranean countries
Figure 2.5 Share of population in jobs that cannot be performed at home, by place of origin, in selected northern Mediterranean countries, 2018
Figure 2.6 Share of population with unmet health needs, by place of origin, in selected northern Mediterranean countries, 2016
Figure B2.2.1 Syrian refugees' access to health care in Turkey, before and after the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic
Figure 2.7 Inclusion of migrants in COVID-19 vaccination campaigns in countries in selected regions, as of May 2021
Figure 2.8 Difference in employment rate between 2019 and 2020, by quarter and place of origin, in selected northern Mediterranean countries
Figure 2.9 Share of the employed population who can work from home, by place of origin, in selected Mediterranean and non-Mediterranean countries, 2020
Figure B2.3.1 Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on Syrian-run and native-run businesses in Turkey, May 2020
Figure B2.3.2 Food insecurity among refugee households in Turkey
Figure 2.10 Relative poverty rates of selected EU Mediterranean countries, by population origin category, 2016
Figure 2.11 Remittances as a share of GDP in selected regions, by country or economy, 2020
Figure 2.12 Share of people able to work from home in Morocco and the Arab Republic of Egypt, by income quartile, 2020 to 2021
Figure B2.4.1 Corridors with the highest and lowest remittance transmission costs in the Mediterranean and GCC region, third quarter of 2020
Figure 2.13 Change in remittances to selected southern Mediterranean countries and economies, 2019-20.
Figure 3.1 Share of foreigners in key occupations, by place of birth, in selected northern Mediterranean EU countries, 2018
Figure 3.2 Share of European countries with labor shortages, by occupation, and share of foreigners in those occupations, 2018 to 2019
Figure B3.1.1 Top providers of agricultural workers to Italy, by country of origin, 2017
Figure B3.1.2 Percentage change in migrant agricultural workers in Italy, by country of origin, 2008 to 2017
Figure 3.3 Share of 15-year-old students whose mother tongue differs from the language of instruction at school in selected Mediterranean countries, 2018
Figure 3.4 Share of 15-year-old students who are socioeconomically disadvantaged in selected Mediterranean countries, 2018
Figure 3.5 ICT availability at home for 15-year-old students in selected Mediterranean countries, 2018
Figure 3.7 Public opinion toward immigration in EU Mediterranean countries, by type of immigrant, 2002 to 2018
Figure 3.6 Correlation between share of telework jobs among natives and share of immigrants across NUTS2 regions of EU countries, 2018
Figure 4.1 Proposed policy objectives and actions
Maps
Map 1.1 The extended Mediterranean region
Map 1.2 Cumulative COVID-19 cases per capita, by country, January 2020 to December 2021
Tables
Table 2.1 Health care coverage of foreign workers in selected northern Mediterranean EU countries, 2020
Table 2.2 Health care coverage of foreign workers in selected southern Mediterranean and GCC countries, 2019
Table 2.3 Unemployment insurance coverage of foreign workers in selected northern Mediterranean EU countries, 2020.
Foreword
Acknowledgments
About the Authors
Abbreviations
Overview
Introduction
Main findings
Countries' policy responses
Lessons learned and policy recommendations
Notes
References
Chapter 1 COVID-19 and Migration in the Mediterranean Region
Introduction
Mobility trends in the region
COVID-19 in the Mediterranean region
Management and adjustment of mobility in response to the pandemic
Notes
References
Chapter 2 The Impacts of COVID-19 on Migrants and Their Families
Introduction
Mobility-related vulnerabilities of migrants and refugees during the pandemic
A mobile population at greater health risk
The pandemic's economic impacts
Annex 2A Methodology for defining jobs that cannot be performed from home
Notes
References
Chapter 3 Mobility-Related Implications of COVID-19 for Receiving Countries
Introduction
Labor disruptions in receiving countries
Implications of COVID-19 for long-term migrant integration
Openness toward migration, before and after COVID-19
Notes
References
Chapter 4 Policy Directions
From findings to policy directions
Proposed policy actions
Closing remarks
Notes
References
Boxes
Box 1.1 Issues with COVID-19-related data
Box 1.2 Data limitations in measuring migration flows during the COVID-19 pandemic
Box 2.1 The "healthy immigrant" paradox
Box 2.2 Refugees' access to health care in Turkey
Box 2.3 Impact of COVID-19 on refugees in Turkey
Box 2.4 Costs of sending remittances in the extended Mediterranean region
Box 3.1 The agriculture industry in Italy
Box 3.2 COVID-19, automation, and migration
Box 4.1 The EU Digital COVID Certificate, or Green Pass
Box 4.2 Multilateral public health efforts in Africa.
Box 4.3 Interventions introduced during the pandemic to simplify hiring procedures for essential workers
Box 4.4 Measures to expand migrants' access to health care and social welfare during the COVID-19 crisis
Box 4.5 Employment retention and promotion policies open to migrants during the COVID-19 crisis
Box 4.6 Digital tools to support migrants' reintegration
Box 4.7 Can diaspora engagements be strengthened in the aftermath of the pandemic?
Box 4.8 The EU's New Pact on Migration and Asylum
Box 4.9 The Western Balkan Regulation
Box 4.10 The German "Triple Win" program
Box 4.11 Improving the accuracy of migration coverage in North and West Africa
Figures
Figure O.1 Share of Mediterranean and GCC countries and economies with mobility restrictions, by type, 2020-21
Figure O.2 Land and sea arrivals of migrants at the EU's main points of entry and in selected Mediterranean countries, 2019-21
Figure O.3 Changes in migrant smuggling from West and North Africa since the start of the COVID-19 pandemic
Figure O.4 Share of European countries with labor shortages, by occupation, and share of foreign workers in those occupations, 2018-19
Figure O.5 Share of people with unmet health needs in selected Mediterranean countries, by place of birth, 2016
Figure O.6 Change in employment rate between 2019 and 2020 in selected Mediterranean countries, by quarter and place of birth
Figure O.7 Food insecurity among refugee households in Turkey, before the pandemic
Figure O.8 ICT availability at home for 15-year-old students in selected Mediterranean countries, 2018
Figure O.9 Proposed policy objectives and actions
Figure 1.1 Share of world's population, emigrants, and immigrants, by region, 2020.
Figure 1.2 Top five migrant sending and receiving economies in the extended Mediterranean region, in relative and absolute terms, 2020
Figure 1.3 Shares of intraregional Mediterranean and GCC migration, by corridor, 2020
Figure 1.4 Top 20 migrant corridors in the combined Mediterranean and GCC region, 2020
Figure 1.5 Mediterranean corridors with the highest shares of low-skilled migrants, 2010
Figure 1.6 Mediterranean corridors with the highest shares of high-skilled migrants, 2010
Figure 1.7 Top 20 refugee corridors in the Mediterranean and GCC region, 2020
Figure B1.1.1 COVID-19 tests per million people per day, by extended Mediterranean subregion, February 2020 to October 2021
Figure B1.1.2 Daily new confirmed COVID-19 cases in relation to daily tests, extended Mediterranean versus non-extended Mediterranean regions, January 2020 to October 2021
Figure 1.8 Share of Mediterranean and GCC countries and economies with mobility restrictions, by type, 2020-21
Figure 1.9 Flights in the Mediterranean region, by subregion, October 2019 to October 2021
Figure 1.10 First-instance asylum applications in selected European Mediterranean countries, 2019 to 2021
Figure 1.11 Land and sea arrivals at the EU's main points of entry and in selected Mediterranean countries, 2019 to 2021
Figure B1.2.1 Destinations of emigrants from Senegal, by data source
Figure B1.2.2 Destinations of emigrants from Nigeria, by data source
Figure 1.12 Changes in migrant stocks from selected African countries to selected destination countries, April 2020 to January 2021
Figure 2.1 Illegal border crossings to Europe, by route, January 2019 to August 2021
Figure 2.2 Changes in smuggling of migrants from West and North Africa since the beginning of the COVID-19 pandemic, as of July 2020.
Figure 2.3 Excess mortality in France, by place of origin, March to April 2020
Figure 2.4 Share of population in overcrowded housing, by origin status, in selected northern Mediterranean countries
Figure 2.5 Share of population in jobs that cannot be performed at home, by place of origin, in selected northern Mediterranean countries, 2018
Figure 2.6 Share of population with unmet health needs, by place of origin, in selected northern Mediterranean countries, 2016
Figure B2.2.1 Syrian refugees' access to health care in Turkey, before and after the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic
Figure 2.7 Inclusion of migrants in COVID-19 vaccination campaigns in countries in selected regions, as of May 2021
Figure 2.8 Difference in employment rate between 2019 and 2020, by quarter and place of origin, in selected northern Mediterranean countries
Figure 2.9 Share of the employed population who can work from home, by place of origin, in selected Mediterranean and non-Mediterranean countries, 2020
Figure B2.3.1 Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on Syrian-run and native-run businesses in Turkey, May 2020
Figure B2.3.2 Food insecurity among refugee households in Turkey
Figure 2.10 Relative poverty rates of selected EU Mediterranean countries, by population origin category, 2016
Figure 2.11 Remittances as a share of GDP in selected regions, by country or economy, 2020
Figure 2.12 Share of people able to work from home in Morocco and the Arab Republic of Egypt, by income quartile, 2020 to 2021
Figure B2.4.1 Corridors with the highest and lowest remittance transmission costs in the Mediterranean and GCC region, third quarter of 2020
Figure 2.13 Change in remittances to selected southern Mediterranean countries and economies, 2019-20.
Figure 3.1 Share of foreigners in key occupations, by place of birth, in selected northern Mediterranean EU countries, 2018
Figure 3.2 Share of European countries with labor shortages, by occupation, and share of foreigners in those occupations, 2018 to 2019
Figure B3.1.1 Top providers of agricultural workers to Italy, by country of origin, 2017
Figure B3.1.2 Percentage change in migrant agricultural workers in Italy, by country of origin, 2008 to 2017
Figure 3.3 Share of 15-year-old students whose mother tongue differs from the language of instruction at school in selected Mediterranean countries, 2018
Figure 3.4 Share of 15-year-old students who are socioeconomically disadvantaged in selected Mediterranean countries, 2018
Figure 3.5 ICT availability at home for 15-year-old students in selected Mediterranean countries, 2018
Figure 3.7 Public opinion toward immigration in EU Mediterranean countries, by type of immigrant, 2002 to 2018
Figure 3.6 Correlation between share of telework jobs among natives and share of immigrants across NUTS2 regions of EU countries, 2018
Figure 4.1 Proposed policy objectives and actions
Maps
Map 1.1 The extended Mediterranean region
Map 1.2 Cumulative COVID-19 cases per capita, by country, January 2020 to December 2021
Tables
Table 2.1 Health care coverage of foreign workers in selected northern Mediterranean EU countries, 2020
Table 2.2 Health care coverage of foreign workers in selected southern Mediterranean and GCC countries, 2019
Table 2.3 Unemployment insurance coverage of foreign workers in selected northern Mediterranean EU countries, 2020.