Intro
Acknowledgements
Contents
List of Figures
List of Tables
1 Introduction
1.1 What Are Weak Presidents?
1.2 Why Study Weak Presidents?
1.3 Aim, Research Questions and Theoretical Framework
1.4 Research Design, Methods and Data
References
2 Weak Presidents' Characteristics and Pathways to Power
2.1 A Gap to Be Filled: How to Tackle with Presidents' Background and Career
2.2 Presidents' Socio-demographic Background
2.3 Presidents' Political Career Paths
2.4 Career Duration, Diversification and Types of Presidents
2.5 Conclusions
References

3 Election and Term of Weak Presidents
3.1 Presidential Electoral Rules and Presidential Terms
3.2 Direct Elections and Second Order Theory
3.3 Indirect Elections and Party Politics
3.4 Duration in Office and Early Resignations
3.5 Conclusion
References
4 Constitutional Strength and the Use of Formal Powers
4.1 Presidents' Formal Powers: An Introduction
4.2 Formal Powers in Government Formation and Parliament Dissolution
4.2.1 Austria
4.2.2 Finland
4.2.3 Germany
4.2.4 Ireland
4.2.5 Italy
4.2.6 Portugal

4.3 Formal Powers in Policy-Making: Vetoes and Messages to the Parliament
4.3.1 Ireland
4.3.2 Italy
4.3.3 Portugal
4.4 Conclusion
References
5 Presidential Informal Powers and Their Use
5.1 Presidents' Informal Powers: A Definition
5.2 Presidents' Informal Powers: A Typology
5.3 Methodological Aspects and Research Design
5.4 Mapping Informal Powers in Government Formation
5.4.1 Pushing for Specific Governing Formulas
5.4.2 Vetoes on Ministers
5.4.3 The Appointment of a Minister

5.5 Mapping Informal Powers in the Policy-Making: Pocket Vetoes and Line-Item Vetoes
5.5.1 Pocket Vetoes
5.5.2 Line-Item Veto or Moral Suasion
5.6 Explaining the Positive Outcome of President's Informal Powers
5.7 Conclusion
References
6 Informal Activism in Practice: The Individual Presidents' Experiences
6.1 Informal Activism in Austria
6.2 Informal Activism in Germany
6.3 Informal Activism in Ireland
6.4 Informal Activism in Italy
6.5 Informal Activism in Portugal
6.6 Conclusion
References

7 When Presidents Go Public: An Analysis of Presidential Major Speeches
7.1 Going Public in Europe: Values, Polity and Policy Issues
7.2 Presidential Speeches and Methodological Aspects
7.3 A Descriptive Exploration of Presidential Speeches Among Macro Themes
7.3.1 The Policy Dimension
7.3.2 The Polity Dimension
7.3.3 The Politics Dimension
7.4 What Kind of Values and Policy Issues? Presidents Facing External Shocks
7.4.1 Global Terrorism
7.4.2 The Global Financial Crisis and European Debt Crisis
7.4.3 The Covid Pandemic