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Table of Contents
Intro
Li-ion Batteries
Preface
Contents
Introduction
Brief History of Primary and Secondary Batteries
General Information on Li-ion Batteries
Bibliography
Positive Electrode Materials for "Lithium-ion" Accumulators
Positive Electrode Materials of "Spinel" Structure
Positive Electrode Materials with Lithiated Layered Oxide Structure
Positive Electrode Materials with Olivine Structure
References
Negative Electrode Materials
Negative Electrode Materials: Several Solutions
Insertion-Intercalation
Conversion
Alloying
Carbon
Historical Background
Interest
Relationship between Structural Characteristics and Performance
Silicon
(De)lithiation Mechanisms
Degradation Mechanisms
Material Improvement Approaches
Lithium Metal
Bibliography
Organic Electrode Materials
Different Types of Organic Electrode Materials
π-Extended System (Conducting Polymers)
Polypyrrole Derivatives (PPy)
Polythiophene Derivatives (PTh)
Polyaniline Derivatives (PANI)
Stable Radical
Organosulfides &
Thioethers
Carbonyl Functions
Aromatic Amines
Implementation Strategies
Grafting on Inorganic or Organic Support
Functionalization of Neutral Polymers
Functionalization of Conducting Polymers
Stabilization by Physisorption
Polyanionic Salt Formation
References
Electrolytes and Separators
Liquid Electrolytes
Lithium Salts and Organic Solvents
Basic Properties and General Observation
State of the Art, Its Limitations and Research to Overcome Them
Lithium Salts and Ionic Liquids
Separators
Properties of Separators
The Separator Market
Cost and Security
Bibliography
Na-ion Batteries: Should/Can Lithium be Replaced?
General Aspects
Should Lithium be Replaced?
Lithium Resources
Lithium Cost.
Can Lithium be Replaced? Towards a 100% Abundant Element-Based Battery
The Na-ion Technology
Brief History
Operating Principle
State of the Art
Negative Electrode Materials
Graphite
Hard Carbon
Non-Carbon Materials
Positive Electrode Materials
Layered Oxides
Polyanionic Materials
Electrolytes and Interfaces
Full System Performance
Outlook
Low Cost Approach
High Power Approach
References
Metal-Sulfur Batteries
The Metal-Sulfur Cell
Advantages and Comparison with Other Technologies
Working Mechanism of the Metal-Sulfur Cell
The (Li,Na)-ion Sulfur Cell
Technology State of the Art and Performances
Main Actors
Understanding the Complex Mechanism
Development Strategies
All-Solid-State Metal-Sulfur Batteries
Industrial Actors
Perspectives and Applications
Bibliography
All Solid-State Batteries
Introduction and Overview
Main Families of Solid Ionic Conductors
Polymeric Solid Electrolytes
Inorganic Solid Electrolytes
Oxides
Oxyhalides with Anti-Perovskite Structure
Borohydrides - Boranes
Sulfide Solid Electrolytes: Glasses and Ceramics
Hybrid Solid Electrolytes
Electrochemical Stability of Solid Electrolytes
All-Solid-State Cells
Academic &
Industrial Players
Bibliography
Supercapacitors: From Material to Cell
Operating Principle
Carbon/Carbon Based Technology
Electrode Design and Components
Current Collector
Activated Carbons for Supercapacitors
Sec7
Sec8
Sec9
Sec10
Binders
Sec12
Sec13
Conductive Additives
Electrolyte
Impact of Electrolyte on Performance
Conductivity
Ions and Concentration Limitations
Solvents
Electrochemical Stability and Ageing
Electrochemical Stability of Ions and Solvents
Electrolyte-Related Causes of Ageing.
Thermal Stability and Performance
Toxicity
Issue with the Substitution of Acetonitrile
Solid State Electrolyte
Electrolyte Organization in the Carbon Based Electrodes
Separators
Requirement Specifications of Separator
Cellulose Based and Polymer Based Separators
Hybrid Systems
Activated Carbon/MnO2 System
Lead Oxide/Activated Carbon System
NiOOH/Activated Carbon System
Graphite/Activated Carbon System
Lithium-ion Capacitor Technology
Sodium-ion Capacitor Technology
Potassium-ion Capacitor Technology
Bibliography
Supercapacitors: Cells and Modules
Cell Design
Small Cells
High-Capacity Cells
High Power Cells
Energy Type Cells
"Pouch" Cell Design
Cells Working in Aqueous Medium
Present Performance of EDLC
Design of Modules and Systems
Modules Based on Hard Casing Cells
Metallic Connections between Cells
Module Terminals
Insulators in Module
Cell Balancing and Other Detected Information
Module Casing
High Capacity Modules Based on Soft Packaging Cells (Pouch Cells)
High Capacity Modules Working in Aqueous Medium
Bibliography
Characterization of the Electrical Performance of Li-ion Cells
Characterization of the Electrical Performance of Individual Cells
Acceptance Tests
Beginning of Life Performance Tests
Capacity, Energy, Resistance and Power Measurements
Faradic and Energy Efficiency
Comparison of Beginning of Life (BoL) Performance of Li-ion Cells
Ageing Performance Tests
Ageing Conditions
Ageing Follow-Up by Incremental Capacity Analysis (ICA) and Differential Voltage Analysis (DVA)
Comparison of the Ageing Performance of various Li-ion Cells
Resistance Measurements of Individual Cells
Introduction
How to Define an Internal Resistance?
Different Methods of Measuring Internal Resistance.
Measurements from Polarization Curves
Measurement with Open Circuit Voltage Variation
Current Pulse Measurements
Current Pulse Measurements and Extrapolation of Voltage Values
Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopic Measurements
Calorimetric Measurements
Conclusion
Bibliography
Microstructural and Physical and Chemical Characterizations of Battery Materials
Introduction: Characterization Methodology to Understand the Electrochemical Response of a Battery
Analysis of Mechanisms Associated with Exchangeable Lithium Loss
SEI Formation and Li Metal Precipitation on Negative Electrode
Loss of Lithium Content of Positive Electrode
Analysis of Phase Transformations that Limit Lithium Mobility
Microstructural Modification of a Positive Electrode
Mechanical Blocking, Obstruction, Disconnection and Loss of Electrical Contact
Loss of Graphite Electrode Capacity in Cycling at Low Temperatures
Exogenous Deposits
Electrolyte Degradation
Perspectives
Bibliography
Cell and Electrode Manufacturing Process
General Principles
Cell Design
Electrode Manufacturing Process
Electrode Formulation
Slurry Preparation
Mixing Process
Slurry Control
Electrodes
Calendering
Cell Fabrication Process
Slitting
Cell Assembly
Electrolyte Filling
Electrical Formation
Cells Bill of Materials and Cost Aspects
New Processes/Perspectives
Conclusion
Bibliography
Battery System and Battery Management System (BMS)
Battery System Architecture
Battery System in Its Electrical Environment
Power Component Associated to Battery Pack
Multiples Functions of BMS
Design and Manufacture of Battery Packs
Examples of Innovation on Battery Systems
References
Definition of the State Estimation Algorithms of a Battery System and Associated Calculation Methods.
Battery State Indicator Definition
State of Charge
State of Energy
State of Health
State of Function
State of Safety
Battery Diagnosis Methods
State of Charge Estimation
Coulomb Equation - Description of the Conventions
Battery Cell Voltage Modelling
Modelling and Bayesian Inference
State-Space Observer
Optimal Bayesian Filter
Kalman Filter Design
Kalman Filter Exploitation for State of Charge Estimation
Improving the Estimation Performance: The Sigma Point Kalman Filter
Sigma Point Kalman Filter Application to SOC Estimation
Battery Total Capacity Estimation
Framework
Linear Regression
Alternative Battery State Diagnosis Method
Bibliography
Standards and Safety
Phenomena Involved in Abusive Conditions
Phenomena at Cell Level
Phenomena at Module and Pack Level
Regulation
Standards
Tests and Additional Analysis
Solutions to Improve Safety at Different Levels
Improvement of the Components within the Cell
Separator
Negative Electrode
Positive Electrode
Electrolyte
Fostering the Formation of the SEI
Positive Electrode Protection Agents
Salt Stabilizers
Protection Agents
Improving Lithium Deposition (Avoid Growth of Dendrites)
Other Agents
Safety Devices at Cell Level
Positive Temperature Coefficient
Current Interrupter Device
Venting
PCB ("Printed Circuit Board")
Safety Devices at the Module and Battery System Level
Electrical Devices
Electronic Devices
Chemical Devices
Thermal Devices
Mechanical Devices
Conclusions and Prospects
Bibliography
Li-ion Battery Recycling
Contextual Elements
Process Head
Process Core (Separation - Valorization)
Pyrometallurgy
Hydrometallurgy
Leaching of Waste
Treatment to Recover and Minimise Ultimate Wastes
Conclusion
References.
Li-ion Batteries Environmental Impacts and Life Cycle Assessment (LCA).
Li-ion Batteries
Preface
Contents
Introduction
Brief History of Primary and Secondary Batteries
General Information on Li-ion Batteries
Bibliography
Positive Electrode Materials for "Lithium-ion" Accumulators
Positive Electrode Materials of "Spinel" Structure
Positive Electrode Materials with Lithiated Layered Oxide Structure
Positive Electrode Materials with Olivine Structure
References
Negative Electrode Materials
Negative Electrode Materials: Several Solutions
Insertion-Intercalation
Conversion
Alloying
Carbon
Historical Background
Interest
Relationship between Structural Characteristics and Performance
Silicon
(De)lithiation Mechanisms
Degradation Mechanisms
Material Improvement Approaches
Lithium Metal
Bibliography
Organic Electrode Materials
Different Types of Organic Electrode Materials
π-Extended System (Conducting Polymers)
Polypyrrole Derivatives (PPy)
Polythiophene Derivatives (PTh)
Polyaniline Derivatives (PANI)
Stable Radical
Organosulfides &
Thioethers
Carbonyl Functions
Aromatic Amines
Implementation Strategies
Grafting on Inorganic or Organic Support
Functionalization of Neutral Polymers
Functionalization of Conducting Polymers
Stabilization by Physisorption
Polyanionic Salt Formation
References
Electrolytes and Separators
Liquid Electrolytes
Lithium Salts and Organic Solvents
Basic Properties and General Observation
State of the Art, Its Limitations and Research to Overcome Them
Lithium Salts and Ionic Liquids
Separators
Properties of Separators
The Separator Market
Cost and Security
Bibliography
Na-ion Batteries: Should/Can Lithium be Replaced?
General Aspects
Should Lithium be Replaced?
Lithium Resources
Lithium Cost.
Can Lithium be Replaced? Towards a 100% Abundant Element-Based Battery
The Na-ion Technology
Brief History
Operating Principle
State of the Art
Negative Electrode Materials
Graphite
Hard Carbon
Non-Carbon Materials
Positive Electrode Materials
Layered Oxides
Polyanionic Materials
Electrolytes and Interfaces
Full System Performance
Outlook
Low Cost Approach
High Power Approach
References
Metal-Sulfur Batteries
The Metal-Sulfur Cell
Advantages and Comparison with Other Technologies
Working Mechanism of the Metal-Sulfur Cell
The (Li,Na)-ion Sulfur Cell
Technology State of the Art and Performances
Main Actors
Understanding the Complex Mechanism
Development Strategies
All-Solid-State Metal-Sulfur Batteries
Industrial Actors
Perspectives and Applications
Bibliography
All Solid-State Batteries
Introduction and Overview
Main Families of Solid Ionic Conductors
Polymeric Solid Electrolytes
Inorganic Solid Electrolytes
Oxides
Oxyhalides with Anti-Perovskite Structure
Borohydrides - Boranes
Sulfide Solid Electrolytes: Glasses and Ceramics
Hybrid Solid Electrolytes
Electrochemical Stability of Solid Electrolytes
All-Solid-State Cells
Academic &
Industrial Players
Bibliography
Supercapacitors: From Material to Cell
Operating Principle
Carbon/Carbon Based Technology
Electrode Design and Components
Current Collector
Activated Carbons for Supercapacitors
Sec7
Sec8
Sec9
Sec10
Binders
Sec12
Sec13
Conductive Additives
Electrolyte
Impact of Electrolyte on Performance
Conductivity
Ions and Concentration Limitations
Solvents
Electrochemical Stability and Ageing
Electrochemical Stability of Ions and Solvents
Electrolyte-Related Causes of Ageing.
Thermal Stability and Performance
Toxicity
Issue with the Substitution of Acetonitrile
Solid State Electrolyte
Electrolyte Organization in the Carbon Based Electrodes
Separators
Requirement Specifications of Separator
Cellulose Based and Polymer Based Separators
Hybrid Systems
Activated Carbon/MnO2 System
Lead Oxide/Activated Carbon System
NiOOH/Activated Carbon System
Graphite/Activated Carbon System
Lithium-ion Capacitor Technology
Sodium-ion Capacitor Technology
Potassium-ion Capacitor Technology
Bibliography
Supercapacitors: Cells and Modules
Cell Design
Small Cells
High-Capacity Cells
High Power Cells
Energy Type Cells
"Pouch" Cell Design
Cells Working in Aqueous Medium
Present Performance of EDLC
Design of Modules and Systems
Modules Based on Hard Casing Cells
Metallic Connections between Cells
Module Terminals
Insulators in Module
Cell Balancing and Other Detected Information
Module Casing
High Capacity Modules Based on Soft Packaging Cells (Pouch Cells)
High Capacity Modules Working in Aqueous Medium
Bibliography
Characterization of the Electrical Performance of Li-ion Cells
Characterization of the Electrical Performance of Individual Cells
Acceptance Tests
Beginning of Life Performance Tests
Capacity, Energy, Resistance and Power Measurements
Faradic and Energy Efficiency
Comparison of Beginning of Life (BoL) Performance of Li-ion Cells
Ageing Performance Tests
Ageing Conditions
Ageing Follow-Up by Incremental Capacity Analysis (ICA) and Differential Voltage Analysis (DVA)
Comparison of the Ageing Performance of various Li-ion Cells
Resistance Measurements of Individual Cells
Introduction
How to Define an Internal Resistance?
Different Methods of Measuring Internal Resistance.
Measurements from Polarization Curves
Measurement with Open Circuit Voltage Variation
Current Pulse Measurements
Current Pulse Measurements and Extrapolation of Voltage Values
Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopic Measurements
Calorimetric Measurements
Conclusion
Bibliography
Microstructural and Physical and Chemical Characterizations of Battery Materials
Introduction: Characterization Methodology to Understand the Electrochemical Response of a Battery
Analysis of Mechanisms Associated with Exchangeable Lithium Loss
SEI Formation and Li Metal Precipitation on Negative Electrode
Loss of Lithium Content of Positive Electrode
Analysis of Phase Transformations that Limit Lithium Mobility
Microstructural Modification of a Positive Electrode
Mechanical Blocking, Obstruction, Disconnection and Loss of Electrical Contact
Loss of Graphite Electrode Capacity in Cycling at Low Temperatures
Exogenous Deposits
Electrolyte Degradation
Perspectives
Bibliography
Cell and Electrode Manufacturing Process
General Principles
Cell Design
Electrode Manufacturing Process
Electrode Formulation
Slurry Preparation
Mixing Process
Slurry Control
Electrodes
Calendering
Cell Fabrication Process
Slitting
Cell Assembly
Electrolyte Filling
Electrical Formation
Cells Bill of Materials and Cost Aspects
New Processes/Perspectives
Conclusion
Bibliography
Battery System and Battery Management System (BMS)
Battery System Architecture
Battery System in Its Electrical Environment
Power Component Associated to Battery Pack
Multiples Functions of BMS
Design and Manufacture of Battery Packs
Examples of Innovation on Battery Systems
References
Definition of the State Estimation Algorithms of a Battery System and Associated Calculation Methods.
Battery State Indicator Definition
State of Charge
State of Energy
State of Health
State of Function
State of Safety
Battery Diagnosis Methods
State of Charge Estimation
Coulomb Equation - Description of the Conventions
Battery Cell Voltage Modelling
Modelling and Bayesian Inference
State-Space Observer
Optimal Bayesian Filter
Kalman Filter Design
Kalman Filter Exploitation for State of Charge Estimation
Improving the Estimation Performance: The Sigma Point Kalman Filter
Sigma Point Kalman Filter Application to SOC Estimation
Battery Total Capacity Estimation
Framework
Linear Regression
Alternative Battery State Diagnosis Method
Bibliography
Standards and Safety
Phenomena Involved in Abusive Conditions
Phenomena at Cell Level
Phenomena at Module and Pack Level
Regulation
Standards
Tests and Additional Analysis
Solutions to Improve Safety at Different Levels
Improvement of the Components within the Cell
Separator
Negative Electrode
Positive Electrode
Electrolyte
Fostering the Formation of the SEI
Positive Electrode Protection Agents
Salt Stabilizers
Protection Agents
Improving Lithium Deposition (Avoid Growth of Dendrites)
Other Agents
Safety Devices at Cell Level
Positive Temperature Coefficient
Current Interrupter Device
Venting
PCB ("Printed Circuit Board")
Safety Devices at the Module and Battery System Level
Electrical Devices
Electronic Devices
Chemical Devices
Thermal Devices
Mechanical Devices
Conclusions and Prospects
Bibliography
Li-ion Battery Recycling
Contextual Elements
Process Head
Process Core (Separation - Valorization)
Pyrometallurgy
Hydrometallurgy
Leaching of Waste
Treatment to Recover and Minimise Ultimate Wastes
Conclusion
References.
Li-ion Batteries Environmental Impacts and Life Cycle Assessment (LCA).