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Table of Contents
Cover
Preface
Acknowledgements
Notice
Table of Contents
1 Introduction
2 Aviation Weather Service Program
2.1 Introduction
2.2 National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA)
2.2.1 National Environmental Satellite, Data, and Information Service (NESDIS)
2.2.1.1 Satellite Analysis Branch (SAB)
2.2.2 National Weather Service (NWS)
2.2.2.1 National Centers for Environmental Prediction (NCEP)
2.2.2.1.1 NCEP Central Operations (NCO)
2.2.2.1.2 Aviation Weather Center (AWC)
2.2.2.1.3 Weather Prediction Center (WPC)
2.2.2.1.4 Storm Prediction Center (SPC)
2.2.2.1.5 National Hurricane Center (NHC)
2.2.2.1.6 Space Weather Prediction Center (SWPC)
2.2.2.1.7 Alaska Aviation Weather Unit (AAWU)
2.2.2.1.8 Center Weather Service Unit (CWSU)
2.2.2.1.9 Weather Forecast Office (WFO)
2.3 Federal Aviation Administration (FAA)
2.3.1 Air Traffic Control Systems Command Center (ATCSCC)
2.3.2 Air Route Traffic Control Center (ARTCC)
2.3.3 Airport Traffic Control Tower (ATCT) and Terminal Radar Approach Control (TRACON)
2.3.4 Flight Service
2.3.4.1 FAA Weather Camera Program
2.4 Department of Defense (DOD)
2.5 Commercial Weather Information Providers
3 Overview of Aviation Weather Information
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Use of Aviation Weather Information
3.2.1 Product Latency
3.2.2 Additional Use Information
3.3 Obtaining Weather Information
3.3.1 Weather Briefings
3.3.1.1 Standard Briefing
3.3.1.2 Abbreviated Briefing
3.3.1.3 Outlook Briefing
3.3.2 Telephone
3.3.2.1 Flight Service 1-800-WX-BRIEF
3.3.2.2 Airport Weather
3.3.3 Self-Briefing
3.3.3.1 Flight Service 1800wxbrief.com
3.3.3.2 Aviation Weather Cameras
3.3.3.3 AviationWeather.gov
3.3.3.3.1 Graphical Forecasts for Aviation (GFA) Tool.
3.3.3.4 Flight Information Service-Broadcast (FIS-B)
3.3.3.5 Commercial Services
3.3.3.6 Weather Applications (Apps)
3.3.4 In-Flight Updates
3.3.4.1 Flight Information Service-Broadcast (FIS-B)
3.3.4.2 Automated Surface Observing System (ASOS) and Automated Weather Observing System (AWOS)
3.3.4.3 Automatic Terminal Information Service (ATIS)
3.3.4.4 Flight Service
3.3.4.5 Automatic Flight Information Service (AFIS) - Alaska Only
3.4 Overview of Aviation Weather Products
3.4.1 Weather Products versus Weather Elements and Phenomena
3.4.2 Summaries of Specific Weather Information Contained in Various Weather Products
3.4.2.1 Products with Thunderstorm Information
3.4.2.2 Products with Wind Information
3.4.2.3 Products with Wind Shear Information
3.4.2.4 Products with Visibility Information
3.4.2.5 Products with Precipitation Information
3.4.2.6 Products with Fog Information
3.4.2.7 Products with In-Flight Icing Information
3.4.2.8 Products with Freezing Level Information
3.4.2.9 Products with Turbulence Information
3.4.2.10 Products with Volcanic Ash Information
3.4.2.11 Products with Tropical Cyclone Information
3.4.2.12 Products with Sandstorm/Dust Storm Information
3.4.2.13 Products with Mountain Obscuration Information
3.4.2.14 Products with Surface-Based IFR Information
3.4.2.15 Products with Surface-Based MVFR Information
3.4.2.16 Products with Cloud Coverage Information
3.4.2.17 Products with Cloud Base Information
3.4.2.18 Products with Cloud Tops Information
3.4.2.19 Products with Cloud Layers Information
3.4.2.20 Products with Pressure Information
3.4.2.21 Products with Fronts Information
3.4.2.22 Products with Temperature Information
3.4.2.23 Products with Space Weather Information
3.4.2.24 Products with Density Altitude Information.
4 The Earth's Atmosphere
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Composition
4.2.1 Air Parcel
4.3 Vertical Structure
4.3.1 Troposphere
4.3.2 Stratosphere
4.3.3 Mesosphere
4.3.4 Thermosphere
4.3.5 Exosphere
4.4 The Standard Atmosphere
5 Heat and Temperature
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Matter
5.3 Energy
5.4 Heat
5.5 Temperature
5.5.1 Temperature Measurement
5.5.2 Temperature Scales
5.6 Heat Transfer
5.6.1 Radiation
5.6.1.1 Solar and Terrestrial Radiation
5.6.1.2 Solar Zenith Angle
5.6.2 Conduction
5.6.3 Convection
5.7 Thermal Response
5.8 Temperature Variations with Altitude
5.8.1 Atmospheric Sounding
5.8.2 Isothermal Layer
5.8.3 Temperature Inversion
6 Water Vapor
6.1 Introduction
6.2 The Hydrologic Cycle
6.2.1 Evaporation
6.2.2 Transpiration
6.2.3 Sublimation
6.2.4 Deposition
6.2.5 Condensation
6.2.6 Transportation
6.2.7 Precipitation
6.2.8 Runoff
6.2.9 Infiltration
6.2.10 Groundwater Flow
6.2.11 Plant Uptake
6.3 Saturation
6.4 Relative Humidity
6.5 Dewpoint
6.6 Temperature-Dewpoint Spread (Dewpoint Depression)
6.7 Change of Phase
6.7.1 Latent Heat
7 Earth-Atmosphere Heat Imbalances
7.1 Introduction
7.2 The Earth-Atmosphere Energy Balance
7.3 Heat Imbalances Between Earth's Surface and the Atmosphere
7.3.1 Sensible Heating
7.3.2 Latent Heat
7.4 Heat Imbalance Variations with Latitude
7.5 Seasons
7.6 Diurnal Temperature Variation
8 Atmospheric Pressure and Altimetry
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Atmospheric Pressure
8.2.1 Barometer
8.2.2 Atmospheric Pressure Units
8.2.3 Station Pressure
8.2.4 Pressure Variation
8.2.4.1 Pressure Changes with Altitude
8.2.4.2 Temperature's Effects on Pressure
8.2.5 Sea Level Pressure
8.3 Density
8.3.1 Volume's Effects on Density.
8.3.2 Changes in Density
8.3.3 Density's Effects on Pressure
8.3.4 Temperature's Effects on Density
8.3.5 Water Vapor's Effects on Density
8.4 Altimetry
8.4.1 Altitude
8.4.1.1 True Altitude
8.4.1.2 Indicated Altitude
8.4.1.2.1 Altimeter Setting
8.4.1.3 Corrected (Approximately True) Altitude
8.4.1.4 Pressure Altitude
8.4.1.5 Density Altitude
9 Global Circulations and Jet Streams
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Non-Rotating Earth Circulation System
9.3 Rotating Earth Circulation System
9.4 Jet Streams
9.4.1 Direction of Wind Flow
9.4.2 Location
10 Wind
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Naming of the Wind
10.3 Forces That Affect the Wind
10.3.1 Pressure Gradient Force (PGF)
10.3.2 Coriolis Force
10.3.3 Friction Force
10.4 Upper Air Wind
10.5 Surface Wind
10.6 Local Winds
10.6.1 Sea Breeze
10.6.1.1 Sea Breeze Front
10.6.1.2 Effects of Coastline Shape
10.6.2 Land Breeze
10.6.3 Lake Breeze
10.6.4 Valley Breeze
10.6.5 Mountain-Plains Wind System
10.6.6 Mountain Breeze
10.7 Adverse Winds
10.7.1 Crosswind
10.7.2 Gust
10.7.3 Tailwind
10.7.4 Variable Wind/Sudden Wind Shift
10.7.5 Wind Shear
10.7.6 Adverse Mountain Winds
10.7.7 Atmospheric Disturbances in Mountainous Areas
11 Air Masses, Fronts, and the Wave Cyclone Model
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Air Masses
11.2.1 Air Mass Classification
11.2.1.1 Temperature Properties
11.2.1.2 Moisture Properties
11.2.1.3 Five Air Masses
11.2.2 Air Mass Modification
11.2.2.1 Lake Effect
11.3 Fronts
11.3.1 Warm Front
11.3.2 Cold Front
11.3.3 Stationary Front
11.3.4 Occluded Front
11.4 The Wave Cyclone Model
11.5 Dryline
12 Vertical Motion and Clouds
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Vertical Motion Effects on an Unsaturated Air Parcel.
12.3 Vertical Motion Effects on a Saturated Air Parcel
12.4 Common Sources of Vertical Motion
12.4.1 Orographic Effects
12.4.2 Frictional Effects
12.4.3 Frontal Lift
12.4.4 Buoyancy
12.5 Cloud Forms
12.6 Cloud Levels
13 Atmospheric Stability
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Using a Parcel as a Tool to Evaluate Stability
13.3 Stability Types
13.3.1 Absolute Stability
13.3.2 Neutral Stability
13.3.3 Absolute Instability
13.3.4 Conditional Instability
13.3.5 Summary of Stability Types
13.4 Processes That Change Atmospheric Stability
13.4.1 Wind Effects on Stability
13.4.2 Vertical Air Motion Effects on Stability
13.4.3 Diurnal Temperature Variation Effects on Stability
13.5 Measurements of Stability
13.5.1 Lifted Index (LI)
13.5.2 Convective Available Potential Energy (CAPE)
13.6 Summary
14 Precipitation
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Necessary Ingredients for Formation
14.3 Growth Process
14.4 Precipitation Types
14.4.1 Snow
14.4.2 Ice Pellets
14.4.3 Freezing Rain
14.4.4 Rain
14.4.5 Hail
15 Weather Radar
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Principles of Weather Radar
15.2.1 Antenna
15.2.2 Backscattered Energy
15.2.3 Power Output
15.2.4 Wavelengths
15.2.5 Attenuation
15.2.5.1 Precipitation Attenuation
15.2.5.2 Range Attenuation
15.2.6 Resolution
15.2.6.1 Beam Resolution
15.2.7 Wave Propagation
15.2.7.1 Normal (Standard) Refraction
15.2.7.2 Subrefraction
15.2.7.3 Superrefraction
15.2.7.4 Ducting
15.2.8 Radar Beam Overshooting and Undershooting
15.2.9 Beam Blockage
15.2.10 Ground Clutter
15.2.11 Ghost
15.2.12 Angels
15.2.13 Anomalous Propagation (AP)
15.2.14 Other Nonmeteorological Phenomena
15.2.14.1 Wind Farms
15.2.15 Precipitation
15.2.15.1 Intensity of Precipitation.
15.2.15.1.1 Intensity of Liquid Precipitation.
Preface
Acknowledgements
Notice
Table of Contents
1 Introduction
2 Aviation Weather Service Program
2.1 Introduction
2.2 National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA)
2.2.1 National Environmental Satellite, Data, and Information Service (NESDIS)
2.2.1.1 Satellite Analysis Branch (SAB)
2.2.2 National Weather Service (NWS)
2.2.2.1 National Centers for Environmental Prediction (NCEP)
2.2.2.1.1 NCEP Central Operations (NCO)
2.2.2.1.2 Aviation Weather Center (AWC)
2.2.2.1.3 Weather Prediction Center (WPC)
2.2.2.1.4 Storm Prediction Center (SPC)
2.2.2.1.5 National Hurricane Center (NHC)
2.2.2.1.6 Space Weather Prediction Center (SWPC)
2.2.2.1.7 Alaska Aviation Weather Unit (AAWU)
2.2.2.1.8 Center Weather Service Unit (CWSU)
2.2.2.1.9 Weather Forecast Office (WFO)
2.3 Federal Aviation Administration (FAA)
2.3.1 Air Traffic Control Systems Command Center (ATCSCC)
2.3.2 Air Route Traffic Control Center (ARTCC)
2.3.3 Airport Traffic Control Tower (ATCT) and Terminal Radar Approach Control (TRACON)
2.3.4 Flight Service
2.3.4.1 FAA Weather Camera Program
2.4 Department of Defense (DOD)
2.5 Commercial Weather Information Providers
3 Overview of Aviation Weather Information
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Use of Aviation Weather Information
3.2.1 Product Latency
3.2.2 Additional Use Information
3.3 Obtaining Weather Information
3.3.1 Weather Briefings
3.3.1.1 Standard Briefing
3.3.1.2 Abbreviated Briefing
3.3.1.3 Outlook Briefing
3.3.2 Telephone
3.3.2.1 Flight Service 1-800-WX-BRIEF
3.3.2.2 Airport Weather
3.3.3 Self-Briefing
3.3.3.1 Flight Service 1800wxbrief.com
3.3.3.2 Aviation Weather Cameras
3.3.3.3 AviationWeather.gov
3.3.3.3.1 Graphical Forecasts for Aviation (GFA) Tool.
3.3.3.4 Flight Information Service-Broadcast (FIS-B)
3.3.3.5 Commercial Services
3.3.3.6 Weather Applications (Apps)
3.3.4 In-Flight Updates
3.3.4.1 Flight Information Service-Broadcast (FIS-B)
3.3.4.2 Automated Surface Observing System (ASOS) and Automated Weather Observing System (AWOS)
3.3.4.3 Automatic Terminal Information Service (ATIS)
3.3.4.4 Flight Service
3.3.4.5 Automatic Flight Information Service (AFIS) - Alaska Only
3.4 Overview of Aviation Weather Products
3.4.1 Weather Products versus Weather Elements and Phenomena
3.4.2 Summaries of Specific Weather Information Contained in Various Weather Products
3.4.2.1 Products with Thunderstorm Information
3.4.2.2 Products with Wind Information
3.4.2.3 Products with Wind Shear Information
3.4.2.4 Products with Visibility Information
3.4.2.5 Products with Precipitation Information
3.4.2.6 Products with Fog Information
3.4.2.7 Products with In-Flight Icing Information
3.4.2.8 Products with Freezing Level Information
3.4.2.9 Products with Turbulence Information
3.4.2.10 Products with Volcanic Ash Information
3.4.2.11 Products with Tropical Cyclone Information
3.4.2.12 Products with Sandstorm/Dust Storm Information
3.4.2.13 Products with Mountain Obscuration Information
3.4.2.14 Products with Surface-Based IFR Information
3.4.2.15 Products with Surface-Based MVFR Information
3.4.2.16 Products with Cloud Coverage Information
3.4.2.17 Products with Cloud Base Information
3.4.2.18 Products with Cloud Tops Information
3.4.2.19 Products with Cloud Layers Information
3.4.2.20 Products with Pressure Information
3.4.2.21 Products with Fronts Information
3.4.2.22 Products with Temperature Information
3.4.2.23 Products with Space Weather Information
3.4.2.24 Products with Density Altitude Information.
4 The Earth's Atmosphere
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Composition
4.2.1 Air Parcel
4.3 Vertical Structure
4.3.1 Troposphere
4.3.2 Stratosphere
4.3.3 Mesosphere
4.3.4 Thermosphere
4.3.5 Exosphere
4.4 The Standard Atmosphere
5 Heat and Temperature
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Matter
5.3 Energy
5.4 Heat
5.5 Temperature
5.5.1 Temperature Measurement
5.5.2 Temperature Scales
5.6 Heat Transfer
5.6.1 Radiation
5.6.1.1 Solar and Terrestrial Radiation
5.6.1.2 Solar Zenith Angle
5.6.2 Conduction
5.6.3 Convection
5.7 Thermal Response
5.8 Temperature Variations with Altitude
5.8.1 Atmospheric Sounding
5.8.2 Isothermal Layer
5.8.3 Temperature Inversion
6 Water Vapor
6.1 Introduction
6.2 The Hydrologic Cycle
6.2.1 Evaporation
6.2.2 Transpiration
6.2.3 Sublimation
6.2.4 Deposition
6.2.5 Condensation
6.2.6 Transportation
6.2.7 Precipitation
6.2.8 Runoff
6.2.9 Infiltration
6.2.10 Groundwater Flow
6.2.11 Plant Uptake
6.3 Saturation
6.4 Relative Humidity
6.5 Dewpoint
6.6 Temperature-Dewpoint Spread (Dewpoint Depression)
6.7 Change of Phase
6.7.1 Latent Heat
7 Earth-Atmosphere Heat Imbalances
7.1 Introduction
7.2 The Earth-Atmosphere Energy Balance
7.3 Heat Imbalances Between Earth's Surface and the Atmosphere
7.3.1 Sensible Heating
7.3.2 Latent Heat
7.4 Heat Imbalance Variations with Latitude
7.5 Seasons
7.6 Diurnal Temperature Variation
8 Atmospheric Pressure and Altimetry
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Atmospheric Pressure
8.2.1 Barometer
8.2.2 Atmospheric Pressure Units
8.2.3 Station Pressure
8.2.4 Pressure Variation
8.2.4.1 Pressure Changes with Altitude
8.2.4.2 Temperature's Effects on Pressure
8.2.5 Sea Level Pressure
8.3 Density
8.3.1 Volume's Effects on Density.
8.3.2 Changes in Density
8.3.3 Density's Effects on Pressure
8.3.4 Temperature's Effects on Density
8.3.5 Water Vapor's Effects on Density
8.4 Altimetry
8.4.1 Altitude
8.4.1.1 True Altitude
8.4.1.2 Indicated Altitude
8.4.1.2.1 Altimeter Setting
8.4.1.3 Corrected (Approximately True) Altitude
8.4.1.4 Pressure Altitude
8.4.1.5 Density Altitude
9 Global Circulations and Jet Streams
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Non-Rotating Earth Circulation System
9.3 Rotating Earth Circulation System
9.4 Jet Streams
9.4.1 Direction of Wind Flow
9.4.2 Location
10 Wind
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Naming of the Wind
10.3 Forces That Affect the Wind
10.3.1 Pressure Gradient Force (PGF)
10.3.2 Coriolis Force
10.3.3 Friction Force
10.4 Upper Air Wind
10.5 Surface Wind
10.6 Local Winds
10.6.1 Sea Breeze
10.6.1.1 Sea Breeze Front
10.6.1.2 Effects of Coastline Shape
10.6.2 Land Breeze
10.6.3 Lake Breeze
10.6.4 Valley Breeze
10.6.5 Mountain-Plains Wind System
10.6.6 Mountain Breeze
10.7 Adverse Winds
10.7.1 Crosswind
10.7.2 Gust
10.7.3 Tailwind
10.7.4 Variable Wind/Sudden Wind Shift
10.7.5 Wind Shear
10.7.6 Adverse Mountain Winds
10.7.7 Atmospheric Disturbances in Mountainous Areas
11 Air Masses, Fronts, and the Wave Cyclone Model
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Air Masses
11.2.1 Air Mass Classification
11.2.1.1 Temperature Properties
11.2.1.2 Moisture Properties
11.2.1.3 Five Air Masses
11.2.2 Air Mass Modification
11.2.2.1 Lake Effect
11.3 Fronts
11.3.1 Warm Front
11.3.2 Cold Front
11.3.3 Stationary Front
11.3.4 Occluded Front
11.4 The Wave Cyclone Model
11.5 Dryline
12 Vertical Motion and Clouds
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Vertical Motion Effects on an Unsaturated Air Parcel.
12.3 Vertical Motion Effects on a Saturated Air Parcel
12.4 Common Sources of Vertical Motion
12.4.1 Orographic Effects
12.4.2 Frictional Effects
12.4.3 Frontal Lift
12.4.4 Buoyancy
12.5 Cloud Forms
12.6 Cloud Levels
13 Atmospheric Stability
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Using a Parcel as a Tool to Evaluate Stability
13.3 Stability Types
13.3.1 Absolute Stability
13.3.2 Neutral Stability
13.3.3 Absolute Instability
13.3.4 Conditional Instability
13.3.5 Summary of Stability Types
13.4 Processes That Change Atmospheric Stability
13.4.1 Wind Effects on Stability
13.4.2 Vertical Air Motion Effects on Stability
13.4.3 Diurnal Temperature Variation Effects on Stability
13.5 Measurements of Stability
13.5.1 Lifted Index (LI)
13.5.2 Convective Available Potential Energy (CAPE)
13.6 Summary
14 Precipitation
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Necessary Ingredients for Formation
14.3 Growth Process
14.4 Precipitation Types
14.4.1 Snow
14.4.2 Ice Pellets
14.4.3 Freezing Rain
14.4.4 Rain
14.4.5 Hail
15 Weather Radar
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Principles of Weather Radar
15.2.1 Antenna
15.2.2 Backscattered Energy
15.2.3 Power Output
15.2.4 Wavelengths
15.2.5 Attenuation
15.2.5.1 Precipitation Attenuation
15.2.5.2 Range Attenuation
15.2.6 Resolution
15.2.6.1 Beam Resolution
15.2.7 Wave Propagation
15.2.7.1 Normal (Standard) Refraction
15.2.7.2 Subrefraction
15.2.7.3 Superrefraction
15.2.7.4 Ducting
15.2.8 Radar Beam Overshooting and Undershooting
15.2.9 Beam Blockage
15.2.10 Ground Clutter
15.2.11 Ghost
15.2.12 Angels
15.2.13 Anomalous Propagation (AP)
15.2.14 Other Nonmeteorological Phenomena
15.2.14.1 Wind Farms
15.2.15 Precipitation
15.2.15.1 Intensity of Precipitation.
15.2.15.1.1 Intensity of Liquid Precipitation.