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Table of Contents
Intro
Advanced Praise for Circuits, Packets, and Protocols
Circuits, Packets, and Protocols
Preface and Acknowledgments
Acknowledgments
Paul Baran
Montgomery Securities
Early Book Reviewers
Stu Greenfield
Harold Shattuck
Douglass North
Professor Manley Irwin
Robert (Bob) and Kathie Maxfield
Computer History Museum
John Toole and John Hollar
Chuck House
Gardner Hendrie
Marc Weber
Interviewees
Vint Cerf
Robert Kahn
Robert Metcalfe
Jay Hill
Louis Pouzin
Bernard (Bernie) Strassburg
Dan Lynch
Joseph Carl Robnett (J.C.R., or "Lick") Licklider
Art Carr
G. David Forney
John Day
My Co-authors:
Andy Russell
Loring G. Robbins
Introduction
Three Themes
Sources and Methods
Market-Structures
Three Market-Structures at the Intersections of Communications and Computing, 1968-1988
Why Do These Stories Matter?
1 Prelude to Change: Data Communications, 1949-1968
1.1 Overview
1.2 AT&
T, The Regulated Monopoly
1.2.1 Hush-a-Phone
1.2.2 Challenges to AT&
T: MCI and Carterfone
1.3 IBM
1.4 New Technologies for Computing
1.4.1 Transistors
1.4.2 Integrated Circuits
1.4.3 Modems
1.4.4 Mainframes and Modems
1.4.4.1 Time-sharing
1.4.4.2 Minicomputers
1.5 Venture Capital and Public Capital Markets
1.6 The Early Entrepreneurs of Data Communications
1.6.1 Codex
1.6.2 Milgo
1.6.3 Bernard Strassburg
1.7 Emergence of the Data Communications Market-Structure
1.8 In Perspective
2 Onset of Competition: Data Communications, 1968-1972
2.1 Overview
2.2 Government and AT&
T
2.2.1 Computer Inquiry I
2.2.2 MCI and Carterfone
2.2.3 William McGowan and MCI
2.3 IBM and Computing
2.3.1 Mainframe Computers and Time-Sharing
2.3.2 Mainframe Market-Structure.
2.3.3 Unbundling Software and Services
2.3.4 Minicomputers
2.4 Early Data Communications Leaders: 1968-1969
2.4.1 Codex
2.4.2 Milgo
2.4.3 Codex
2.4.4 ADS
2.5 A Swarm of Data Communications Start-ups: 1968-1970
2.5.1 Infotron
2.5.2 General DataComm
2.5.3 Timeplex
2.5.4 Paradyne
2.5.5 Vadic
2.5.6 Universal Data Systems
2.5.7 Intertel
2.6 1970: A Pivotal Year for Codex and ADS
2.6.1 ADS
2.7 The Creation of the IDCMA
2.8 Strategic Partnerships in the Data Communications Market-Structure: 1971-1972
2.9 Data Communications Market-Structure
2.9.1 By 1972 the Data Communications Market-Structure had Emerged
2.10 In Perspective
3 Packet Switching and ARPANET: Networking, 1959-1972
3.1 Overview
3.2 The Intergalactic Network
3.2.1 How to Design a Data Network
3.2.2 Paul Baran
3.2.3 Donald Davies Davies-1965-19661
3.3 ARPANET: The Planning Phase
3.4 ARPANET: Design, Implementation, and Administration
3.4.1 Subnet Design and Implementation
3.4.2 Host-to-Host Software and the Network Working Group
3.5 Uncertainty and the Emergence of a Dominant Design, 1969-1972
3.5.1 Early Surprises
3.5.2 Parallel Experiments in Hawaii and London
3.6 ARPANET Meets the Public: ICCC Demonstration, 1972
3.7 In Perspective
4 Market Order: Data Communications, 1973-1979
4.1 Overview
4.2 Regulatory Challenges to IBM and AT&
T
4.3 Data Communications Market Leaders in the Early 1970s
4.3.1 Codex: Modems, Multiplexers, and Competition, 1973-1976
4.3.2 Milgo Defends Its Position
4.3.3 ADS: Rebirth as Micom, 1973-1976
4.4 The Swarm of Data Communications Firms, 1976-1979
4.4.1 Infotron
4.4.2 General DataComm
4.4.3 Timeplex
4.4.4 Paradyne
4.4.5 Vadic
4.4.6 Universal Data Systems
4.4.7 Intertel.
4.5 Micom's Breakout Product, 1976-1979
4.6 Market Leaders Are Acquired
4.7 The Data Communications Market-Structure: Market Disruption
4.8 In Perspective
5 Protocol Confusion: Networking, 1972-1979
5.1 Overview
5.2 Commercializing ARPANET, 1972-1975
5.3 Packet Radio and Robert Kahn, 1972-1974
5.4 The CYCLADES Network and Louis Pouzin, 1971-1972
5.5 Transmission Control Protocol (TCP), 1973-1976
5.6 A Proliferation of Communication Projects
5.6.1 Token Ring, David Farber, UC Irvine, and the NSF: 1969-1974
5.6.2 Ethernet, Robert Metcalfe, and Xerox PARC, 1971-1975
5.6.3 Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 1974-1977
5.6.4 Metcalfe Joins the Systems Development Division of Xerox, 1975-1978
5.6.5 Xerox Network System, 1977-1978
5.6.6 TCP to TCP/IP, 1976-1979
5.6.7 Open System Interconnection (OSI) 1975-1979
5.6.8 National Bureau of Standards and MITRE, 1971-1979
5.6.8.1 The 1979 Meetings: Resolution to the Confusion?
5.7 In Perspective
6 Emergence of Local Area Networks: Networking, 1976-1981
6.1 Overview
6.2 Early Networking Pioneers
6.3 Select Computer Companies Introduce LANs, 1976-1978
6.3.1 Prime Computer
6.3.2 MIT-The Laboratory of Computer Science
6.3.3 Digital Equipment Corporation
6.3.4 Zilog
6.3.5 The Return of Venture Capital
6.4 Early LAN Start-ups
6.4.1 Robert Metcalfe and the Founding of 3Com
6.4.2 Michael Pliner and the Founding of Sytek
6.4.3 Ralph Ungermann, Charlie Bass, and the Founding of Ungermann-Bass
6.5 Data Communications Companies Respond with the Data PBX
6.5.1 Micom: The Data PBX and IPO
6.5.2 Codex: The Data PBX, 1977-1981
6.6 Early LAN Start-ups Struggle, 1980-1981
6.6.1 Sytek: A Broadband Network and a Need for Cash
6.6.2 Ungermann-Bass: Xerox, Broadband, and Chips.
6.6.3 3Com: Product Strategy in Anticipation of a PC
6.7 The Emergence of the Networking Market-Structure
6.8 In Perspective
7 The Chaos of Competition: Networking, 1981-1982
7.1 Overview
7.2 The Office of the Future, the PBX to CBX, and AT&
T
7.2.1 The IBM PC, 1981-1982
7.2.2 IBM's Token Ring LAN, 1981-1982
7.3 Early LAN Start-ups, 1981
7.3.1 3Com
7.3.2 Ungermann-Bass
7.3.3 Sytek
7.4 Emerging LAN Competition, 1981
7.4.1 Interlan
7.4.2 Bridge Communications
7.4.3 Proteon
7.4.4 Concord Data Systems
7.5 The Data Communication Competitors, 1981-1982
7.5.1 Micom
7.5.2 Codex
7.5.3 Other Data Communication Competitors
7.6 A Second Wave of LAN Competition, 1982
7.6.1 Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC)
7.6.2 Excelan
7.6.3 Communication Machinery Corporation
7.6.4 General Electric
7.7 The Settlement of the AT&
T and IBM Antitrust Lawsuits
7.7.1 The AT&
T Settlement, January 1982
7.8 IBM Antitrust Suit
7.9 Ethernet Chips, Boundless Hope and Market Confusion
7.10 LAN Market-Structure, 1981-1982
7.11 In Perspective
8 The Need for Standards: Networking, 1975-1984
8.1 Overview
8.2 IEEE Committee 802: The Battle for LAN Standards
8.3 DIX
8.4 IEEE Committee 802 and DIX
8.5 Networking Strategy at Xerox: 1979-1981
8.6 ISO/OSI (Open Systems Interconnection): 1979-1982
8.7 The LAN and OSI Standards Efforts Meet
8.8 The Emergence of a Dominant Design: 1983-1984
8.9 In Perspective
9 Market Order: Networking, 1983-1986
9.1 Overview
9.2 The Established Powers
9.2.1 Alex. Brown &
Sons Conference, March 1983
9.2.2 AT&
T: Computers and LANs
9.2.3 IBM: CBXs and LANs-Does It Need Both?
9.2.4 The Computer Companies
9.2.5 Digital Equipment Corporation
9.3 The Leading LAN start-ups, 1983-1986.
9.3.1 3Com
9.3.2 Ungermann-Bass
9.3.3 Sytek
9.4 Other LAN start-ups
9.4.1 Bridge Communications
9.4.2 Interlan
9.4.3 Concord Data Systems
9.4.4 Proteon
9.4.5 Excelan
9.4.6 Communications Machinery Corporation, 1985-1986
9.4.7 SynOptics Communications Inc.
9.5 The Data Communication Competitors, 1983-1984
9.5.1 Codex
9.5.2 Micom
9.5.3 Micom-Interlan
9.6 New Data PBX Competitors
9.6.1 Metapath
9.6.2 Equinox
9.7 LAN and Data Communications Market-Structures,1985-1986
9.8 In Perspective
10 Adaptation of Wide Area Networks: Data Communications, 1979-1986
10.1 Overview
10.2 The Revolution of Digital Transmission, 1982-1984
10.2.1 AT&
T and the T1 Tariffs, 1982-1984
10.3 The T1 Multiplexer
10.4 The Beginnings of "Be Your Own Bell"
10.5 Data Communications: First Signs of Digital Networks, 1982-1985
10.5.1 General DataComm
10.5.2 Timeplex
10.5.3 Codex
10.5.4 Micom
10.5.5 Digital Communications Associates
10.5.6 Other Data Communications Firms
10.5.7 Tymnet and the Caravan Project, 1982
10.6 Entrepreneurs: The T1 Start-ups, 1982-1985
10.6.1 Network Equipment Technologies
10.6.2 Cohesive Networks
10.6.3 Network Switching Systems
10.6.4 Spectrum Digital
10.7 Market Analysis: Samples of Expert Opinions, 1984-1987
10.7.1 The Yankee Group
10.7.2 Datapro Research
10.7.3 Alex. Brown &
Sons
10.7.4 Salomon Brothers Inc.
10.7.5 T1 Multiplexer OEM Relationships, 1985
10.8 Data Communications: Wide Area Networks, 1985-1988
10.8.1 Digital Communications Associates
10.8.2 Network Equipment Technologies
10.8.3 Codex
10.8.4 Micom
10.8.5 Timeplex
10.8.6 Other Data Communication Firms
10.8.7 T1 Market-Structure
10.9 In Perspective
11 Market Consolidation: Data Communications and Networking, 1986-1988.
11.1 Overview.
Advanced Praise for Circuits, Packets, and Protocols
Circuits, Packets, and Protocols
Preface and Acknowledgments
Acknowledgments
Paul Baran
Montgomery Securities
Early Book Reviewers
Stu Greenfield
Harold Shattuck
Douglass North
Professor Manley Irwin
Robert (Bob) and Kathie Maxfield
Computer History Museum
John Toole and John Hollar
Chuck House
Gardner Hendrie
Marc Weber
Interviewees
Vint Cerf
Robert Kahn
Robert Metcalfe
Jay Hill
Louis Pouzin
Bernard (Bernie) Strassburg
Dan Lynch
Joseph Carl Robnett (J.C.R., or "Lick") Licklider
Art Carr
G. David Forney
John Day
My Co-authors:
Andy Russell
Loring G. Robbins
Introduction
Three Themes
Sources and Methods
Market-Structures
Three Market-Structures at the Intersections of Communications and Computing, 1968-1988
Why Do These Stories Matter?
1 Prelude to Change: Data Communications, 1949-1968
1.1 Overview
1.2 AT&
T, The Regulated Monopoly
1.2.1 Hush-a-Phone
1.2.2 Challenges to AT&
T: MCI and Carterfone
1.3 IBM
1.4 New Technologies for Computing
1.4.1 Transistors
1.4.2 Integrated Circuits
1.4.3 Modems
1.4.4 Mainframes and Modems
1.4.4.1 Time-sharing
1.4.4.2 Minicomputers
1.5 Venture Capital and Public Capital Markets
1.6 The Early Entrepreneurs of Data Communications
1.6.1 Codex
1.6.2 Milgo
1.6.3 Bernard Strassburg
1.7 Emergence of the Data Communications Market-Structure
1.8 In Perspective
2 Onset of Competition: Data Communications, 1968-1972
2.1 Overview
2.2 Government and AT&
T
2.2.1 Computer Inquiry I
2.2.2 MCI and Carterfone
2.2.3 William McGowan and MCI
2.3 IBM and Computing
2.3.1 Mainframe Computers and Time-Sharing
2.3.2 Mainframe Market-Structure.
2.3.3 Unbundling Software and Services
2.3.4 Minicomputers
2.4 Early Data Communications Leaders: 1968-1969
2.4.1 Codex
2.4.2 Milgo
2.4.3 Codex
2.4.4 ADS
2.5 A Swarm of Data Communications Start-ups: 1968-1970
2.5.1 Infotron
2.5.2 General DataComm
2.5.3 Timeplex
2.5.4 Paradyne
2.5.5 Vadic
2.5.6 Universal Data Systems
2.5.7 Intertel
2.6 1970: A Pivotal Year for Codex and ADS
2.6.1 ADS
2.7 The Creation of the IDCMA
2.8 Strategic Partnerships in the Data Communications Market-Structure: 1971-1972
2.9 Data Communications Market-Structure
2.9.1 By 1972 the Data Communications Market-Structure had Emerged
2.10 In Perspective
3 Packet Switching and ARPANET: Networking, 1959-1972
3.1 Overview
3.2 The Intergalactic Network
3.2.1 How to Design a Data Network
3.2.2 Paul Baran
3.2.3 Donald Davies Davies-1965-19661
3.3 ARPANET: The Planning Phase
3.4 ARPANET: Design, Implementation, and Administration
3.4.1 Subnet Design and Implementation
3.4.2 Host-to-Host Software and the Network Working Group
3.5 Uncertainty and the Emergence of a Dominant Design, 1969-1972
3.5.1 Early Surprises
3.5.2 Parallel Experiments in Hawaii and London
3.6 ARPANET Meets the Public: ICCC Demonstration, 1972
3.7 In Perspective
4 Market Order: Data Communications, 1973-1979
4.1 Overview
4.2 Regulatory Challenges to IBM and AT&
T
4.3 Data Communications Market Leaders in the Early 1970s
4.3.1 Codex: Modems, Multiplexers, and Competition, 1973-1976
4.3.2 Milgo Defends Its Position
4.3.3 ADS: Rebirth as Micom, 1973-1976
4.4 The Swarm of Data Communications Firms, 1976-1979
4.4.1 Infotron
4.4.2 General DataComm
4.4.3 Timeplex
4.4.4 Paradyne
4.4.5 Vadic
4.4.6 Universal Data Systems
4.4.7 Intertel.
4.5 Micom's Breakout Product, 1976-1979
4.6 Market Leaders Are Acquired
4.7 The Data Communications Market-Structure: Market Disruption
4.8 In Perspective
5 Protocol Confusion: Networking, 1972-1979
5.1 Overview
5.2 Commercializing ARPANET, 1972-1975
5.3 Packet Radio and Robert Kahn, 1972-1974
5.4 The CYCLADES Network and Louis Pouzin, 1971-1972
5.5 Transmission Control Protocol (TCP), 1973-1976
5.6 A Proliferation of Communication Projects
5.6.1 Token Ring, David Farber, UC Irvine, and the NSF: 1969-1974
5.6.2 Ethernet, Robert Metcalfe, and Xerox PARC, 1971-1975
5.6.3 Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 1974-1977
5.6.4 Metcalfe Joins the Systems Development Division of Xerox, 1975-1978
5.6.5 Xerox Network System, 1977-1978
5.6.6 TCP to TCP/IP, 1976-1979
5.6.7 Open System Interconnection (OSI) 1975-1979
5.6.8 National Bureau of Standards and MITRE, 1971-1979
5.6.8.1 The 1979 Meetings: Resolution to the Confusion?
5.7 In Perspective
6 Emergence of Local Area Networks: Networking, 1976-1981
6.1 Overview
6.2 Early Networking Pioneers
6.3 Select Computer Companies Introduce LANs, 1976-1978
6.3.1 Prime Computer
6.3.2 MIT-The Laboratory of Computer Science
6.3.3 Digital Equipment Corporation
6.3.4 Zilog
6.3.5 The Return of Venture Capital
6.4 Early LAN Start-ups
6.4.1 Robert Metcalfe and the Founding of 3Com
6.4.2 Michael Pliner and the Founding of Sytek
6.4.3 Ralph Ungermann, Charlie Bass, and the Founding of Ungermann-Bass
6.5 Data Communications Companies Respond with the Data PBX
6.5.1 Micom: The Data PBX and IPO
6.5.2 Codex: The Data PBX, 1977-1981
6.6 Early LAN Start-ups Struggle, 1980-1981
6.6.1 Sytek: A Broadband Network and a Need for Cash
6.6.2 Ungermann-Bass: Xerox, Broadband, and Chips.
6.6.3 3Com: Product Strategy in Anticipation of a PC
6.7 The Emergence of the Networking Market-Structure
6.8 In Perspective
7 The Chaos of Competition: Networking, 1981-1982
7.1 Overview
7.2 The Office of the Future, the PBX to CBX, and AT&
T
7.2.1 The IBM PC, 1981-1982
7.2.2 IBM's Token Ring LAN, 1981-1982
7.3 Early LAN Start-ups, 1981
7.3.1 3Com
7.3.2 Ungermann-Bass
7.3.3 Sytek
7.4 Emerging LAN Competition, 1981
7.4.1 Interlan
7.4.2 Bridge Communications
7.4.3 Proteon
7.4.4 Concord Data Systems
7.5 The Data Communication Competitors, 1981-1982
7.5.1 Micom
7.5.2 Codex
7.5.3 Other Data Communication Competitors
7.6 A Second Wave of LAN Competition, 1982
7.6.1 Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC)
7.6.2 Excelan
7.6.3 Communication Machinery Corporation
7.6.4 General Electric
7.7 The Settlement of the AT&
T and IBM Antitrust Lawsuits
7.7.1 The AT&
T Settlement, January 1982
7.8 IBM Antitrust Suit
7.9 Ethernet Chips, Boundless Hope and Market Confusion
7.10 LAN Market-Structure, 1981-1982
7.11 In Perspective
8 The Need for Standards: Networking, 1975-1984
8.1 Overview
8.2 IEEE Committee 802: The Battle for LAN Standards
8.3 DIX
8.4 IEEE Committee 802 and DIX
8.5 Networking Strategy at Xerox: 1979-1981
8.6 ISO/OSI (Open Systems Interconnection): 1979-1982
8.7 The LAN and OSI Standards Efforts Meet
8.8 The Emergence of a Dominant Design: 1983-1984
8.9 In Perspective
9 Market Order: Networking, 1983-1986
9.1 Overview
9.2 The Established Powers
9.2.1 Alex. Brown &
Sons Conference, March 1983
9.2.2 AT&
T: Computers and LANs
9.2.3 IBM: CBXs and LANs-Does It Need Both?
9.2.4 The Computer Companies
9.2.5 Digital Equipment Corporation
9.3 The Leading LAN start-ups, 1983-1986.
9.3.1 3Com
9.3.2 Ungermann-Bass
9.3.3 Sytek
9.4 Other LAN start-ups
9.4.1 Bridge Communications
9.4.2 Interlan
9.4.3 Concord Data Systems
9.4.4 Proteon
9.4.5 Excelan
9.4.6 Communications Machinery Corporation, 1985-1986
9.4.7 SynOptics Communications Inc.
9.5 The Data Communication Competitors, 1983-1984
9.5.1 Codex
9.5.2 Micom
9.5.3 Micom-Interlan
9.6 New Data PBX Competitors
9.6.1 Metapath
9.6.2 Equinox
9.7 LAN and Data Communications Market-Structures,1985-1986
9.8 In Perspective
10 Adaptation of Wide Area Networks: Data Communications, 1979-1986
10.1 Overview
10.2 The Revolution of Digital Transmission, 1982-1984
10.2.1 AT&
T and the T1 Tariffs, 1982-1984
10.3 The T1 Multiplexer
10.4 The Beginnings of "Be Your Own Bell"
10.5 Data Communications: First Signs of Digital Networks, 1982-1985
10.5.1 General DataComm
10.5.2 Timeplex
10.5.3 Codex
10.5.4 Micom
10.5.5 Digital Communications Associates
10.5.6 Other Data Communications Firms
10.5.7 Tymnet and the Caravan Project, 1982
10.6 Entrepreneurs: The T1 Start-ups, 1982-1985
10.6.1 Network Equipment Technologies
10.6.2 Cohesive Networks
10.6.3 Network Switching Systems
10.6.4 Spectrum Digital
10.7 Market Analysis: Samples of Expert Opinions, 1984-1987
10.7.1 The Yankee Group
10.7.2 Datapro Research
10.7.3 Alex. Brown &
Sons
10.7.4 Salomon Brothers Inc.
10.7.5 T1 Multiplexer OEM Relationships, 1985
10.8 Data Communications: Wide Area Networks, 1985-1988
10.8.1 Digital Communications Associates
10.8.2 Network Equipment Technologies
10.8.3 Codex
10.8.4 Micom
10.8.5 Timeplex
10.8.6 Other Data Communication Firms
10.8.7 T1 Market-Structure
10.9 In Perspective
11 Market Consolidation: Data Communications and Networking, 1986-1988.
11.1 Overview.