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Inductive Sensors for Industrial Applications
Contents
Introduction
Chapter 1 Basics of Inductive Sensors, Definition, and Conventions
1.1 General Sensor Definition
1.1.1 Sensor or Transducer
1.1.2 IEEE Sensor Definition and Block Diagram
1.1.3 Inductive Sensor Definition and Functional Block Schematic
1.2 Types of Inductive Sensors and Specific Classification Criteria
1.2.1 Contact or Contactless Detection
1.2.2 Position Versus Displacement
1.2.3 Absolute or Incremental Reading
1.2.4 Linear or Angular Configuration
1.3 Main Features of Inductive Sensors: Definitions and Typical Values
1.3.1 Supply Conditions and Limitations
1.3.2 Sensing Range, Zero and Span, and Hysteresis
1.3.3 Sensitivity and Nonlinearity, Linearity Error
1.3.4 Accuracy, Resolution, and Repeatability: Three Precision Criterions
1.3.5 Drift, Temperature Effects, and Temperature Ranges
1.3.6 Dynamic Specification, Response Time and Cut-off Frequency, and Turn on and Turn off Times
1.3.7 Analog, Binary or Digital, and Voltage or Current Output Types
References
Chapter 2 Inductive Proximity Sensors: Standards, EMC/EMI, Safety, Reliability, and Availability
2.1 Specific Product Standards and Requirements
2.1.1 International Electrotechnical Commission Standard IEC 60947-5-2
2.1.2 International Electrotechnical Commission Standard IEC 60947-5-7
2.2 Basic and Specific EMC/EMi Standards
2.2.1 Resilience Against Electrostatic Discharges
2.2.2 Resilience Against Radiated Electromagnetic Fields
2.2.3 Resilience Against Fast Transients: EFT, Burst
2.2.4 Resilience Against Impulse Voltage (Surge)
2.2.5 Resilience against Common Mode Conducted Disturbances
2.2.6 Magnetic Field Immunity Test
2.2.7 Immunity to Voltage Dips and Interruptions.
2.2.8 Summary of the EMC Test Conditions for Inductive Proximity Sensors
2.3 Shock and Vibration Requirements
2.4 International Protection Classification
2.5 Intrinsic Safety, Product Safety Certification
2.6 Reliability and Availability
2.6.1 Mean Time Between Failures, Mean Time to Failure, and Failure Rate and Availability
2.6.2 Highly Accelerated Life Test
References
Chapter 3 Inductive Sensors: Definitions, Main Types, and Market Share
3.1 Overview of the Sensor Classification
3.2 Specific Embedding of Inductive Sensors
3.3 Main Types of Inductive Sensors
3.3.1 Magnetoelastic Systems
3.3.2 Electrodynamic Systems
3.3.3 Electromagnetic Systems with Closed Magnetic Loop
3.3.4 Electromagnetic Systems with Open Magnetic Loop
3.3.5 Variable Differential Transformers
3.3.6 Systems Based on the Eddy Currents Evaluation
3.3.7 Variable Transformers: Microsyn, Synchro, and Resolver
3.3.8 Final Considerations of Main Inductive Sensor Categories
3.4 Global Inductive Sensor Market: Size, Share, Growth, Trends, and Forecast
3.4.1 Global Sensor Market
3.4.2 Global P&
D Sensor Market
3.4.3 Global IS Market
References
Chapter 4 Inductive Sensing Elements-Evaluation Methods
4.1 Analytical Methods of ISE
4.1.1 Inductors: Inductance, Impedance and Admittance
4.1.2 Quality Factor of an Inductor
4.1.3 Impedance and Q-Factor of a Resonant Circuit
4.2 Measuring Methods to Evaluate the ISE
4.2.1 Experimental Methods
4.2.2 Measuring Methods Suitable to be implemented in ISE
4.3 Modern Computer-Assisted Analysis and Synthesis of ISE
4.3.1 The fundamentals of the Computer-Aided Electromagnetic Field Simulation
4.3.2 Field Simulation Software Tools
4.3.3 Simulation with ANSYS Maxwell Tool
4.3.4 Flow Chart of a Maxwell Field-Simulation Project: Concrete Example.
References
Chapter 5 Inductive Sensing Elements-Practical Implementations
5.1 Fundamental Inductors: Solenoid and Toroid
5.1.1 The Solenoid
5.1.2 The Toroid
5.2 Wire-Wound Coils with Air Cores
5.3 Wire-Wound Coils with Magnetic Cores
5.3.1 Inductance of Wire-Wound Coils with Magnetic Cores
5.3.2 Core Factor and Effective Core Parameters
5.3.3 Losses Caused by Cores: Total Formula of the Inductor Impedance at Full Length
5.4 Printed Flat Spiral Coils
5.5 Integrated Coils on Silicon Substrate
5.6 Active Inductors, Gyrators
References
Chapter 6 Magnetic Materials for Cores and Plungers of ISEs
6.1 Ferrites
6.1.1 Ferrites: Classification, Definitions, and Properties
6.1.2 Overview of MnZn Ferrites Specifications: Cross-reference List of Available MnZn Ferrites
6.1.3 Ferrites Core Manufacturing Process: Technical Core Types
6.2 Permaloy and Mu-Metals
6.3 Soft Iron Alloys
References
Chapter 7 Evaluation Electronics of the Inductive Sensors
7.1 Generic Functional Diagram of the Inductive Sensor's Evaluation Electronics
7.2 Inductive Sensor with Discrete Evaluation Electronics
7.3 Inductive Sensor with Integrated Evaluation Electronics
7.3.1 Overview of Bipolar Integration Technology
7.3.2 Overview of Complementary Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor Processes: Benchmarking CMOS versus Bipolar Technology
7.3.3 Evaluation Electronics of Inductive Sensors with Integrated Circuits
7.4 ASIC Implementations in the Evaluation Electronics for Inductive Sensors
7.4.1 Single-ASIC Implementations: The Classical Device TCA505
7.4.2 Multi-ASIC Versions
7.4.3 Systems on Chip SOC
7.5 Software-Defined Sensors: Fantasy or the Inductive Sensor of Tomorrow?
References
Chapter 8 Driving and Evaluation of the Inductive Sensing Element: Oscillators.
8.1 Theory of Resonant LC Circuits: Series versus Parallel
8.1.1 Characteristics of the Series Resonant LC Circuit
8.1.2 Characteristics of the Parallel Resonant LC Circuit
8.2 General Theory of the Oscillator
8.2.1 Harmonic Oscillator
8.2.2 Linear Oscillator with Losses
8.2.3 Oscillators with Loss Cancellation by Positive Feedback Operation
8.3 Convenient Types of LC Oscillators for Inductive Sensors
8.3.1 Transistor-Based, Positive-Feedback Oscillators
8.3.2 Ring-Circuit Oscillators with LC Dipole
8.3.3 Differential Amplifier Oscillators with LC Dipole
8.3.4 Bridge-Network Oscillators
8.3.5 Oscillators with Pulsing DC Current Excitation
8.3.6 Negative-Resistance Oscillators
8.5 Function Generators
8.5.1 Relaxation Oscillators
8.5.2 Self-Oscillating Function Generators
8.5.3 Timer-Chip NE555
8.5.4 Digitally Synthesized Function Generators
References
Chapter 9 Inductive Sensors: Signal Processing and Conditioning
9.1 Signal Amplifiers
9.1.1 Operational Amplifiers: Definition and Applications
9.1.2 Operational Amplifiers: Frequency Response, Stability, and Compensation
9.2 Precision AC/DC Signal Converters
9.2.1 Precision Rectifiers
9.2.2 Peak Detectors
9.2.3 Synchronous Rectifiers
9.3 Sample-and-Hold Systems
9.4 Signal Linearization, Linearization Methods
9.4.1 Analog Hardware-Based Linearization
9.4.2 Software-Based Linearization
9.4.3 Logic Hardware Linearization
9.4.4 Hardware-Software Mixed Approaches
9.4.5 Artificial Neural Networks Approaches
9.5 Comparators, Window Discriminators
9.6 Regenerative Comparators (Schmitt Trigger)
9.7 Phase-Locked Loop Circuits
9.7.1 PLL Concepts
9.7.2 Analog PLL: Architecture and Operation
9.7.3 PLL Linear Analysis, Stability
9.7.4 Digital PLLs.
9.8 Digital-to-Analog and Analog-to-Digital Convertors
9.8.1 Digital-to-Analog Converters
9.8.2 Analog-to-Digital Converters
References
Chapter 10 Inductive Sensors: Output Signal Providing
10.1 Output Stages for Analog Inductive Sensors
10.1.1 Voltage Output Stages
10.1.2 Current Telemetry: Current Output Stages
10.1.3 Ratiometric Voltage Outputs
10.2 Output Drivers for Digital Inductive Sensors
10.2.1 Switched Inductive Loads, Voltage Clamps
10.2.2 Output Drivers with Commercial Parts
10.2.3 Monolithic Integrated Output Drivers in ASICs
References
Chapter 11 Inductive Sensors: Power Supply and Sensor Protections
11.1 Power Supply Circuits
11.1.1 Series Voltage Regulators/References
11.1.2 Shunt Voltage Regulators
11.2 Standard and Supplimentary Sensor Protection Functions
11.2.1 Open Wire Protection
11.2.2 Reversed Polarity Protection
11.2.3 Protection against High-Energetic Pulses (Surge)
References
Chapter 12 Inductive Sensors: Adjustment and Calibration
12.1 Traditional Sensor Trimming Procedures with Commercial Components
12.1.1 Trimmable Resistors
12.1.2 Rejustor
12.1.3 Manual Mechanical Potentiometers
12.1.4 Digital Potentiometers
12.2 Specific Programmable Electronic Devices used to Calibrate Inductive Sensors
12.2.1 Established Methods for the Trimming of Inductive Sensors
12.2.2 ASIC and ASIC Sections for Trimming of Inductive Sensors.
References
Chapter 13 Inductive Sensors: Temperature Compensation
13.1 Temperature Sensing Devices
13.1.1 Passive Temperature Probes
13.1.2 Active Temperature-Dependent Circuits
13.1.3 Active Temperature-Independent References: Bandgap References
13.2 Theoretical Considerations Regarding the Temperature Behavior of ISEs.
13.3 Improvement of the Temperature Behavior by Passive Temperature Compensations.
Contents
Introduction
Chapter 1 Basics of Inductive Sensors, Definition, and Conventions
1.1 General Sensor Definition
1.1.1 Sensor or Transducer
1.1.2 IEEE Sensor Definition and Block Diagram
1.1.3 Inductive Sensor Definition and Functional Block Schematic
1.2 Types of Inductive Sensors and Specific Classification Criteria
1.2.1 Contact or Contactless Detection
1.2.2 Position Versus Displacement
1.2.3 Absolute or Incremental Reading
1.2.4 Linear or Angular Configuration
1.3 Main Features of Inductive Sensors: Definitions and Typical Values
1.3.1 Supply Conditions and Limitations
1.3.2 Sensing Range, Zero and Span, and Hysteresis
1.3.3 Sensitivity and Nonlinearity, Linearity Error
1.3.4 Accuracy, Resolution, and Repeatability: Three Precision Criterions
1.3.5 Drift, Temperature Effects, and Temperature Ranges
1.3.6 Dynamic Specification, Response Time and Cut-off Frequency, and Turn on and Turn off Times
1.3.7 Analog, Binary or Digital, and Voltage or Current Output Types
References
Chapter 2 Inductive Proximity Sensors: Standards, EMC/EMI, Safety, Reliability, and Availability
2.1 Specific Product Standards and Requirements
2.1.1 International Electrotechnical Commission Standard IEC 60947-5-2
2.1.2 International Electrotechnical Commission Standard IEC 60947-5-7
2.2 Basic and Specific EMC/EMi Standards
2.2.1 Resilience Against Electrostatic Discharges
2.2.2 Resilience Against Radiated Electromagnetic Fields
2.2.3 Resilience Against Fast Transients: EFT, Burst
2.2.4 Resilience Against Impulse Voltage (Surge)
2.2.5 Resilience against Common Mode Conducted Disturbances
2.2.6 Magnetic Field Immunity Test
2.2.7 Immunity to Voltage Dips and Interruptions.
2.2.8 Summary of the EMC Test Conditions for Inductive Proximity Sensors
2.3 Shock and Vibration Requirements
2.4 International Protection Classification
2.5 Intrinsic Safety, Product Safety Certification
2.6 Reliability and Availability
2.6.1 Mean Time Between Failures, Mean Time to Failure, and Failure Rate and Availability
2.6.2 Highly Accelerated Life Test
References
Chapter 3 Inductive Sensors: Definitions, Main Types, and Market Share
3.1 Overview of the Sensor Classification
3.2 Specific Embedding of Inductive Sensors
3.3 Main Types of Inductive Sensors
3.3.1 Magnetoelastic Systems
3.3.2 Electrodynamic Systems
3.3.3 Electromagnetic Systems with Closed Magnetic Loop
3.3.4 Electromagnetic Systems with Open Magnetic Loop
3.3.5 Variable Differential Transformers
3.3.6 Systems Based on the Eddy Currents Evaluation
3.3.7 Variable Transformers: Microsyn, Synchro, and Resolver
3.3.8 Final Considerations of Main Inductive Sensor Categories
3.4 Global Inductive Sensor Market: Size, Share, Growth, Trends, and Forecast
3.4.1 Global Sensor Market
3.4.2 Global P&
D Sensor Market
3.4.3 Global IS Market
References
Chapter 4 Inductive Sensing Elements-Evaluation Methods
4.1 Analytical Methods of ISE
4.1.1 Inductors: Inductance, Impedance and Admittance
4.1.2 Quality Factor of an Inductor
4.1.3 Impedance and Q-Factor of a Resonant Circuit
4.2 Measuring Methods to Evaluate the ISE
4.2.1 Experimental Methods
4.2.2 Measuring Methods Suitable to be implemented in ISE
4.3 Modern Computer-Assisted Analysis and Synthesis of ISE
4.3.1 The fundamentals of the Computer-Aided Electromagnetic Field Simulation
4.3.2 Field Simulation Software Tools
4.3.3 Simulation with ANSYS Maxwell Tool
4.3.4 Flow Chart of a Maxwell Field-Simulation Project: Concrete Example.
References
Chapter 5 Inductive Sensing Elements-Practical Implementations
5.1 Fundamental Inductors: Solenoid and Toroid
5.1.1 The Solenoid
5.1.2 The Toroid
5.2 Wire-Wound Coils with Air Cores
5.3 Wire-Wound Coils with Magnetic Cores
5.3.1 Inductance of Wire-Wound Coils with Magnetic Cores
5.3.2 Core Factor and Effective Core Parameters
5.3.3 Losses Caused by Cores: Total Formula of the Inductor Impedance at Full Length
5.4 Printed Flat Spiral Coils
5.5 Integrated Coils on Silicon Substrate
5.6 Active Inductors, Gyrators
References
Chapter 6 Magnetic Materials for Cores and Plungers of ISEs
6.1 Ferrites
6.1.1 Ferrites: Classification, Definitions, and Properties
6.1.2 Overview of MnZn Ferrites Specifications: Cross-reference List of Available MnZn Ferrites
6.1.3 Ferrites Core Manufacturing Process: Technical Core Types
6.2 Permaloy and Mu-Metals
6.3 Soft Iron Alloys
References
Chapter 7 Evaluation Electronics of the Inductive Sensors
7.1 Generic Functional Diagram of the Inductive Sensor's Evaluation Electronics
7.2 Inductive Sensor with Discrete Evaluation Electronics
7.3 Inductive Sensor with Integrated Evaluation Electronics
7.3.1 Overview of Bipolar Integration Technology
7.3.2 Overview of Complementary Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor Processes: Benchmarking CMOS versus Bipolar Technology
7.3.3 Evaluation Electronics of Inductive Sensors with Integrated Circuits
7.4 ASIC Implementations in the Evaluation Electronics for Inductive Sensors
7.4.1 Single-ASIC Implementations: The Classical Device TCA505
7.4.2 Multi-ASIC Versions
7.4.3 Systems on Chip SOC
7.5 Software-Defined Sensors: Fantasy or the Inductive Sensor of Tomorrow?
References
Chapter 8 Driving and Evaluation of the Inductive Sensing Element: Oscillators.
8.1 Theory of Resonant LC Circuits: Series versus Parallel
8.1.1 Characteristics of the Series Resonant LC Circuit
8.1.2 Characteristics of the Parallel Resonant LC Circuit
8.2 General Theory of the Oscillator
8.2.1 Harmonic Oscillator
8.2.2 Linear Oscillator with Losses
8.2.3 Oscillators with Loss Cancellation by Positive Feedback Operation
8.3 Convenient Types of LC Oscillators for Inductive Sensors
8.3.1 Transistor-Based, Positive-Feedback Oscillators
8.3.2 Ring-Circuit Oscillators with LC Dipole
8.3.3 Differential Amplifier Oscillators with LC Dipole
8.3.4 Bridge-Network Oscillators
8.3.5 Oscillators with Pulsing DC Current Excitation
8.3.6 Negative-Resistance Oscillators
8.5 Function Generators
8.5.1 Relaxation Oscillators
8.5.2 Self-Oscillating Function Generators
8.5.3 Timer-Chip NE555
8.5.4 Digitally Synthesized Function Generators
References
Chapter 9 Inductive Sensors: Signal Processing and Conditioning
9.1 Signal Amplifiers
9.1.1 Operational Amplifiers: Definition and Applications
9.1.2 Operational Amplifiers: Frequency Response, Stability, and Compensation
9.2 Precision AC/DC Signal Converters
9.2.1 Precision Rectifiers
9.2.2 Peak Detectors
9.2.3 Synchronous Rectifiers
9.3 Sample-and-Hold Systems
9.4 Signal Linearization, Linearization Methods
9.4.1 Analog Hardware-Based Linearization
9.4.2 Software-Based Linearization
9.4.3 Logic Hardware Linearization
9.4.4 Hardware-Software Mixed Approaches
9.4.5 Artificial Neural Networks Approaches
9.5 Comparators, Window Discriminators
9.6 Regenerative Comparators (Schmitt Trigger)
9.7 Phase-Locked Loop Circuits
9.7.1 PLL Concepts
9.7.2 Analog PLL: Architecture and Operation
9.7.3 PLL Linear Analysis, Stability
9.7.4 Digital PLLs.
9.8 Digital-to-Analog and Analog-to-Digital Convertors
9.8.1 Digital-to-Analog Converters
9.8.2 Analog-to-Digital Converters
References
Chapter 10 Inductive Sensors: Output Signal Providing
10.1 Output Stages for Analog Inductive Sensors
10.1.1 Voltage Output Stages
10.1.2 Current Telemetry: Current Output Stages
10.1.3 Ratiometric Voltage Outputs
10.2 Output Drivers for Digital Inductive Sensors
10.2.1 Switched Inductive Loads, Voltage Clamps
10.2.2 Output Drivers with Commercial Parts
10.2.3 Monolithic Integrated Output Drivers in ASICs
References
Chapter 11 Inductive Sensors: Power Supply and Sensor Protections
11.1 Power Supply Circuits
11.1.1 Series Voltage Regulators/References
11.1.2 Shunt Voltage Regulators
11.2 Standard and Supplimentary Sensor Protection Functions
11.2.1 Open Wire Protection
11.2.2 Reversed Polarity Protection
11.2.3 Protection against High-Energetic Pulses (Surge)
References
Chapter 12 Inductive Sensors: Adjustment and Calibration
12.1 Traditional Sensor Trimming Procedures with Commercial Components
12.1.1 Trimmable Resistors
12.1.2 Rejustor
12.1.3 Manual Mechanical Potentiometers
12.1.4 Digital Potentiometers
12.2 Specific Programmable Electronic Devices used to Calibrate Inductive Sensors
12.2.1 Established Methods for the Trimming of Inductive Sensors
12.2.2 ASIC and ASIC Sections for Trimming of Inductive Sensors.
References
Chapter 13 Inductive Sensors: Temperature Compensation
13.1 Temperature Sensing Devices
13.1.1 Passive Temperature Probes
13.1.2 Active Temperature-Dependent Circuits
13.1.3 Active Temperature-Independent References: Bandgap References
13.2 Theoretical Considerations Regarding the Temperature Behavior of ISEs.
13.3 Improvement of the Temperature Behavior by Passive Temperature Compensations.