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Table of Contents
Front Cover
Title Page
Copyright Page
Dedication Page
Contents
Preface to First Edition
Preface to Second Edition
Preface to Third Edition
Preface to Fourth Edition
Chapter 1: Introduction to Automotive Fuels and Their Specification
References
Further Reading
Chapter 2: A History of Gasoline and Diesel Fuel Development
2.1 Gasoline
2.1.1 The Evolution of the Gasoline Engine
2.1.2 Gasoline Development
2.2 Diesel Fuel
2.2.1 The Evolution of the Diesel Engine
2.2.2 Diesel Fuel Development
References
Further Reading
Chapter 3: Manufacture of Gasoline and Diesel Fuel from Crude Oil
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Crude Oil
3.3 Influence of Product Demand Pattern on Processing
3.4 Distillation
3.5 Cracking Processes
3.5.1 Thermal Cracking
3.5.2 Visbreaking
3.5.3 Coking
3.5.4 Catalytic Cracking
3.5.5 Hydrocracking
3.5.6 Steam Cracking
3.6 Catalytic Reforming
3.7 Alkylation, Isomerization, and Polymerization
3.7.1 Alkylation
3.7.2 Isomerization
3.7.3 Polymerization
3.8 Finishing Processes
3.8.1 Caustic Washing
3.8.2 Merox Treating
3.8.3 Hydrodesulfurization
3.9 Oxygenated Gasoline Components
3.9.1 Alcohols
3.9.2 Ethers
3.10 Gasoline Blending
3.10.1 Blending Operations
3.10.2 Blending Calculations
3.10.3 Octane Blending
3.10.4 Reid Vapor Pressure (RVP) Blending
3.10.5 ASTM Distillation Blending
3.11 Diesel Fuel Blending
3.11.1 Diesel Blending Operations
3.11.2 Diesel Blend Calculations
References
Further Reading
Chapter 4: Manufacture of Gasoline and Diesel Fuel from Non-Crude Oil Fossil Sources
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Coal to Liquids
4.2.1 Direct Coal Liquefaction (DCL)
4.2.2 Indirect Coal Liquefaction (ICL)
4.3 Gaseous Fuels
4.3.1 Gaseous Fuel Supply.
4.3.2 Gaseous Fuel Composition and Properties
4.3.3 Gaseous Fuels Dispensing and Storage
4.4 Gas-to-Liquids
4.5 Methanol to Fuel
4.6 Oil Sands Fuel
4.6.1 Oil Sands Extraction and Processing
4.7 Oil Shale Fuel
4.7.1 Oil Shale Mining and Processing
4.7.2 In Situ Retorting
References
Further Reading
Chapter 5: Manufacture of Gasoline and Diesel Fuel from Renewable Sources
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Minimally Processed Vegetable Oil
5.3 Bio-Ethanol
5.3.1 Ethanol from Sugar Crops
5.3.2 Ethanol from Grain Crops
5.3.3 Lignocellulosic Ethanol
5.4 Biodiesel Fuel
5.5 Co-Processing Feedstocks
5.5.1 Oleochemical Route
5.5.2 Thermochemical Route
5.5.3 Biochemical Route
5.6 Hydrotreated Vegetable Oil
5.7 Power-to-Liquids
5.7.1 Hydrogen Generation
5.7.2 Carbon Capture
5.7.3 Hydrocarbon Generation
References
Further Reading
Chapter 6: Storage, Distribution, and Handling of Gasoline and Diesel Fuel
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Safety Considerations for Storage and Handling
6.2.1 Flash Point
6.2.2 Electrical Conductivity
6.3 Health and Environmental Effects of Gasoline
6.3.1 Health Aspects
6.3.2 Exposure Limits
6.3.3 Ecotoxicity
6.3.4 Disposal
6.4 Health and Environmental Effects of Diesel Fuel
6.4.1 Health Aspects
6.4.2 Exposure Limits
6.4.3 Ecotoxicity
6.4.4 Disposal
6.5 Influences on Product Quality during Distribution
6.5.1 Sea Transport
6.5.2 Pipeline
6.5.3 Road and Rail
6.6 Influences on Product Quality during Storage
6.6.1 Water Contamination in Tankage
6.6.2 Microbiological Contamination
6.6.3 Sludge in Tankage
6.6.4 Evaporative Losses
6.6.5 Oxidation
6.7 Considerations with Oxygenated Blends
6.7.1 Environmental Aspects of Fuels Containing MTBE
6.7.2 Water Sensitivity of Alcohol Blends.
6.7.3 Safety and Fire Protection for Alcohol Blends
6.7.4 Oxidation Stability of Biodiesel
6.7.5 Low-Temperature Operability of Biodiesel
References
Further Reading
Chapter 7: Positive Ignition Engine Combustion Process
7.1 Normal Combustion
7.1.1 Mixture Requirements
7.1.2 The Combustion Process
7.2 Spark Knock
7.2.1 How Spark Knock Occurs
7.3 Measurement of Gasoline Antiknock Quality
7.3.1 Research and Motor Octane Number
7.3.2 Road Octane Number
7.3.3 Octane Index and Modern Engines
7.3.4 Influence of Chemical Structure on Octane Quality
7.4 Antiknock Additives
7.4.1 Lead Alkyls
7.4.2 MMT-Methylcyclopentadienyl Manganese Tricarbonyl
7.4.3 Other Metallic Antiknocks
7.4.4 Organic Antiknocks
7.4.5 Oxygenated Blending Components
7.5 Octane Blending
7.6 Octane Requirements of Vehicles and Engines
7.6.1 Vehicles with Knock Sensor Systems
7.6.2 Data Analysis
7.6.3 Octane Rating of Fuels Using Vehicles or Engines
7.6.4 Engine and Other Factors That Influence Octane Requirements
7.7 Octane Requirement Increase (ORI)
7.8 Other Abnormal Combustion Phenomena
7.8.1 Preignition
7.8.2 Misfire
7.8.3 Run-On
References
Further Reading
Chapter 8: Gasoline Engine Design and Influence of Fuel Characteristics
8.1 Introduction
8.2 The Gasoline Engine
8.2.1 Otto Cycle
8.2.2 The Atkinson Cycle
8.2.3 The Miller Cycle
8.3 Vehicle Fuel Systems
8.3.1 The Fuel Metering System
8.3.2 The Fuel Tank and Pump
8.4 Ignition Systems
8.5 Combustion and Exhaust Emission Control Systems
8.5.1 Combustion Chamber Configuration
8.5.2 The Effect of Air-to-Fuel Ratio
8.5.3 Exhaust Aftertreatment Systems
References
Further Reading
Chapter 9: Gasoline Volatility
9.1 Measurement of Gasoline Volatility
9.1.1 Vapor Pressure.
9.1.2 Reid Vapor Pressure
9.1.3 Dry Vapor Pressure and DVPE
9.1.4 Distillation by ASTM D86
9.1.5 Vapor-Liquid Ratio
9.1.6 Effect of Oxygenated Blending Components
9.2 Cold Starting
9.2.1 Different Fuel System Technologies
9.2.2 Relevant Specifications
9.3 Cold Weather Driveability
9.3.1 Cold Weather Driveability Test Procedures
9.3.2 Relevant Fuel Parameters
9.4 Hot Weather Driveability
9.4.1 Hot Weather Driveability Testing
9.4.2 Hot Weather Driveability Problems
9.4.3 Hot Weather Fuel Parameter Specification
9.5 Evaporative Emissions from Vehicles
9.5.1 Measuring Evaporative Emissions
9.5.2 Reducing Evaporative Emissions
9.6 Influence of Fuel Volatility on Exhaust Emissions
9.7 Intake System Icing
9.7.1 Throttle Icing in Carbureted and Throttle Body Injected Engines
9.7.2 Throttle Icing in Multipoint Fuel-Injected Engines
9.8 Oil Dilution and Combustion Chamber Deposits
9.9 Fuel Economy and Gasoline Volatility
References
Further Reading
Chapter 10: Influence of Gasoline Composition on Stability, Gum Formation, and Engine Deposits
10.1 The Influence of Gasoline Composition on Stability
10.1.1 Measurement of Stability
10.2 Deposit Formation in Engines Due to Gasoline Oxidation
10.2.1 Deposit Formation in the Fuel Tank and Fuel Lines
10.2.2 Deposit Formation in Fuel Injectors and Carburetors
10.2.3 Deposit Formation in the Inlet Manifold, Ports, and on Valves
10.2.4 Combustion Chamber Deposits
References
Chapter 11: Gasoline Additives
11.1 Additives to Improve Oxidation Stability
11.1.1 Antioxidants
11.1.2 Metal Deactivators
11.2 Additives Used in Gasoline Distribution
11.2.1 Dyes and Markers
11.2.2 Corrosion Inhibitors
11.2.3 Biocides
11.2.4 Anti-Static Additives
11.2.5 Drag Reducing Agents.
11.2.6 Demulsifiers and Dehazers
11.3 Additives Used to Protect Engines and Fuel Systems
11.3.1 Corrosion Inhibitors
11.3.2 Anti-Icing Additives
11.3.3 Deposit Control Additives (DCAs)
11.3.4 Factory Fill Additives
11.4 Additives That Influence Combustion
11.4.1 Antiknock Additives
11.4.2 Anti-ORI Additives
11.4.3 Anti-Pre-Ignition and Anti-Misfire Additives
11.4.4 Spark-Aider Additives
11.4.5 Additives for Improving Fuel Distribution between Cylinders
11.4.6 Anti-Valve-Seat Recession Additives
11.5 Additives That Improve Lubricant Performance
11.5.1 Upper Cylinder Lubricants
11.5.2 Anti-Wear Additives
11.5.3 Friction Modifiers
11.5.4 Anti-Sludge Additives
11.6 Multifunctional Additive Packages
References
Chapter 12: Other Gasoline Specification and Non-Specification Properties
12.1 Density
12.2 Heat of Combustion
12.3 Composition
12.3.1 Hydrocarbon Composition
12.3.2 Elemental Composition
12.3.3 Oxygenates
12.3.4 Water
12.4 Flash Point
12.5 Surface Tension
12.6 Viscosity
12.7 Conductivity
12.8 Corrosivity
12.9 Freezing Point
12.10 Appearance
References
Chapter 13: Influence of Gasoline Characteristics on Emissions
13.1 Development of Emission Legislation and Fuel Quality Regulations
13.1.1 Development in the US
13.1.2 Development in Europe
13.1.3 Development in Japan
13.1.4 Development in the Rest of the World
13.2 The Introduction of Reformulated Gasolines
13.2.1 The Adoption of RFG in the US
13.2.2 RFG Specifications
13.2.3 European Experience of RFGs
13.2.4 The Fuel and Emission Relationship Going Forward
13.3 The Influence of Gasoline Sulfur Content on Emissions
13.3.1 The Effect of Sulfur on Tailpipe Emissions
13.3.2 The Effect of Sulfur on Durability of Aftertreatment Systems.
13.3.3 The Effect of Sulfur on Onboard Diagnostics.
Title Page
Copyright Page
Dedication Page
Contents
Preface to First Edition
Preface to Second Edition
Preface to Third Edition
Preface to Fourth Edition
Chapter 1: Introduction to Automotive Fuels and Their Specification
References
Further Reading
Chapter 2: A History of Gasoline and Diesel Fuel Development
2.1 Gasoline
2.1.1 The Evolution of the Gasoline Engine
2.1.2 Gasoline Development
2.2 Diesel Fuel
2.2.1 The Evolution of the Diesel Engine
2.2.2 Diesel Fuel Development
References
Further Reading
Chapter 3: Manufacture of Gasoline and Diesel Fuel from Crude Oil
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Crude Oil
3.3 Influence of Product Demand Pattern on Processing
3.4 Distillation
3.5 Cracking Processes
3.5.1 Thermal Cracking
3.5.2 Visbreaking
3.5.3 Coking
3.5.4 Catalytic Cracking
3.5.5 Hydrocracking
3.5.6 Steam Cracking
3.6 Catalytic Reforming
3.7 Alkylation, Isomerization, and Polymerization
3.7.1 Alkylation
3.7.2 Isomerization
3.7.3 Polymerization
3.8 Finishing Processes
3.8.1 Caustic Washing
3.8.2 Merox Treating
3.8.3 Hydrodesulfurization
3.9 Oxygenated Gasoline Components
3.9.1 Alcohols
3.9.2 Ethers
3.10 Gasoline Blending
3.10.1 Blending Operations
3.10.2 Blending Calculations
3.10.3 Octane Blending
3.10.4 Reid Vapor Pressure (RVP) Blending
3.10.5 ASTM Distillation Blending
3.11 Diesel Fuel Blending
3.11.1 Diesel Blending Operations
3.11.2 Diesel Blend Calculations
References
Further Reading
Chapter 4: Manufacture of Gasoline and Diesel Fuel from Non-Crude Oil Fossil Sources
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Coal to Liquids
4.2.1 Direct Coal Liquefaction (DCL)
4.2.2 Indirect Coal Liquefaction (ICL)
4.3 Gaseous Fuels
4.3.1 Gaseous Fuel Supply.
4.3.2 Gaseous Fuel Composition and Properties
4.3.3 Gaseous Fuels Dispensing and Storage
4.4 Gas-to-Liquids
4.5 Methanol to Fuel
4.6 Oil Sands Fuel
4.6.1 Oil Sands Extraction and Processing
4.7 Oil Shale Fuel
4.7.1 Oil Shale Mining and Processing
4.7.2 In Situ Retorting
References
Further Reading
Chapter 5: Manufacture of Gasoline and Diesel Fuel from Renewable Sources
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Minimally Processed Vegetable Oil
5.3 Bio-Ethanol
5.3.1 Ethanol from Sugar Crops
5.3.2 Ethanol from Grain Crops
5.3.3 Lignocellulosic Ethanol
5.4 Biodiesel Fuel
5.5 Co-Processing Feedstocks
5.5.1 Oleochemical Route
5.5.2 Thermochemical Route
5.5.3 Biochemical Route
5.6 Hydrotreated Vegetable Oil
5.7 Power-to-Liquids
5.7.1 Hydrogen Generation
5.7.2 Carbon Capture
5.7.3 Hydrocarbon Generation
References
Further Reading
Chapter 6: Storage, Distribution, and Handling of Gasoline and Diesel Fuel
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Safety Considerations for Storage and Handling
6.2.1 Flash Point
6.2.2 Electrical Conductivity
6.3 Health and Environmental Effects of Gasoline
6.3.1 Health Aspects
6.3.2 Exposure Limits
6.3.3 Ecotoxicity
6.3.4 Disposal
6.4 Health and Environmental Effects of Diesel Fuel
6.4.1 Health Aspects
6.4.2 Exposure Limits
6.4.3 Ecotoxicity
6.4.4 Disposal
6.5 Influences on Product Quality during Distribution
6.5.1 Sea Transport
6.5.2 Pipeline
6.5.3 Road and Rail
6.6 Influences on Product Quality during Storage
6.6.1 Water Contamination in Tankage
6.6.2 Microbiological Contamination
6.6.3 Sludge in Tankage
6.6.4 Evaporative Losses
6.6.5 Oxidation
6.7 Considerations with Oxygenated Blends
6.7.1 Environmental Aspects of Fuels Containing MTBE
6.7.2 Water Sensitivity of Alcohol Blends.
6.7.3 Safety and Fire Protection for Alcohol Blends
6.7.4 Oxidation Stability of Biodiesel
6.7.5 Low-Temperature Operability of Biodiesel
References
Further Reading
Chapter 7: Positive Ignition Engine Combustion Process
7.1 Normal Combustion
7.1.1 Mixture Requirements
7.1.2 The Combustion Process
7.2 Spark Knock
7.2.1 How Spark Knock Occurs
7.3 Measurement of Gasoline Antiknock Quality
7.3.1 Research and Motor Octane Number
7.3.2 Road Octane Number
7.3.3 Octane Index and Modern Engines
7.3.4 Influence of Chemical Structure on Octane Quality
7.4 Antiknock Additives
7.4.1 Lead Alkyls
7.4.2 MMT-Methylcyclopentadienyl Manganese Tricarbonyl
7.4.3 Other Metallic Antiknocks
7.4.4 Organic Antiknocks
7.4.5 Oxygenated Blending Components
7.5 Octane Blending
7.6 Octane Requirements of Vehicles and Engines
7.6.1 Vehicles with Knock Sensor Systems
7.6.2 Data Analysis
7.6.3 Octane Rating of Fuels Using Vehicles or Engines
7.6.4 Engine and Other Factors That Influence Octane Requirements
7.7 Octane Requirement Increase (ORI)
7.8 Other Abnormal Combustion Phenomena
7.8.1 Preignition
7.8.2 Misfire
7.8.3 Run-On
References
Further Reading
Chapter 8: Gasoline Engine Design and Influence of Fuel Characteristics
8.1 Introduction
8.2 The Gasoline Engine
8.2.1 Otto Cycle
8.2.2 The Atkinson Cycle
8.2.3 The Miller Cycle
8.3 Vehicle Fuel Systems
8.3.1 The Fuel Metering System
8.3.2 The Fuel Tank and Pump
8.4 Ignition Systems
8.5 Combustion and Exhaust Emission Control Systems
8.5.1 Combustion Chamber Configuration
8.5.2 The Effect of Air-to-Fuel Ratio
8.5.3 Exhaust Aftertreatment Systems
References
Further Reading
Chapter 9: Gasoline Volatility
9.1 Measurement of Gasoline Volatility
9.1.1 Vapor Pressure.
9.1.2 Reid Vapor Pressure
9.1.3 Dry Vapor Pressure and DVPE
9.1.4 Distillation by ASTM D86
9.1.5 Vapor-Liquid Ratio
9.1.6 Effect of Oxygenated Blending Components
9.2 Cold Starting
9.2.1 Different Fuel System Technologies
9.2.2 Relevant Specifications
9.3 Cold Weather Driveability
9.3.1 Cold Weather Driveability Test Procedures
9.3.2 Relevant Fuel Parameters
9.4 Hot Weather Driveability
9.4.1 Hot Weather Driveability Testing
9.4.2 Hot Weather Driveability Problems
9.4.3 Hot Weather Fuel Parameter Specification
9.5 Evaporative Emissions from Vehicles
9.5.1 Measuring Evaporative Emissions
9.5.2 Reducing Evaporative Emissions
9.6 Influence of Fuel Volatility on Exhaust Emissions
9.7 Intake System Icing
9.7.1 Throttle Icing in Carbureted and Throttle Body Injected Engines
9.7.2 Throttle Icing in Multipoint Fuel-Injected Engines
9.8 Oil Dilution and Combustion Chamber Deposits
9.9 Fuel Economy and Gasoline Volatility
References
Further Reading
Chapter 10: Influence of Gasoline Composition on Stability, Gum Formation, and Engine Deposits
10.1 The Influence of Gasoline Composition on Stability
10.1.1 Measurement of Stability
10.2 Deposit Formation in Engines Due to Gasoline Oxidation
10.2.1 Deposit Formation in the Fuel Tank and Fuel Lines
10.2.2 Deposit Formation in Fuel Injectors and Carburetors
10.2.3 Deposit Formation in the Inlet Manifold, Ports, and on Valves
10.2.4 Combustion Chamber Deposits
References
Chapter 11: Gasoline Additives
11.1 Additives to Improve Oxidation Stability
11.1.1 Antioxidants
11.1.2 Metal Deactivators
11.2 Additives Used in Gasoline Distribution
11.2.1 Dyes and Markers
11.2.2 Corrosion Inhibitors
11.2.3 Biocides
11.2.4 Anti-Static Additives
11.2.5 Drag Reducing Agents.
11.2.6 Demulsifiers and Dehazers
11.3 Additives Used to Protect Engines and Fuel Systems
11.3.1 Corrosion Inhibitors
11.3.2 Anti-Icing Additives
11.3.3 Deposit Control Additives (DCAs)
11.3.4 Factory Fill Additives
11.4 Additives That Influence Combustion
11.4.1 Antiknock Additives
11.4.2 Anti-ORI Additives
11.4.3 Anti-Pre-Ignition and Anti-Misfire Additives
11.4.4 Spark-Aider Additives
11.4.5 Additives for Improving Fuel Distribution between Cylinders
11.4.6 Anti-Valve-Seat Recession Additives
11.5 Additives That Improve Lubricant Performance
11.5.1 Upper Cylinder Lubricants
11.5.2 Anti-Wear Additives
11.5.3 Friction Modifiers
11.5.4 Anti-Sludge Additives
11.6 Multifunctional Additive Packages
References
Chapter 12: Other Gasoline Specification and Non-Specification Properties
12.1 Density
12.2 Heat of Combustion
12.3 Composition
12.3.1 Hydrocarbon Composition
12.3.2 Elemental Composition
12.3.3 Oxygenates
12.3.4 Water
12.4 Flash Point
12.5 Surface Tension
12.6 Viscosity
12.7 Conductivity
12.8 Corrosivity
12.9 Freezing Point
12.10 Appearance
References
Chapter 13: Influence of Gasoline Characteristics on Emissions
13.1 Development of Emission Legislation and Fuel Quality Regulations
13.1.1 Development in the US
13.1.2 Development in Europe
13.1.3 Development in Japan
13.1.4 Development in the Rest of the World
13.2 The Introduction of Reformulated Gasolines
13.2.1 The Adoption of RFG in the US
13.2.2 RFG Specifications
13.2.3 European Experience of RFGs
13.2.4 The Fuel and Emission Relationship Going Forward
13.3 The Influence of Gasoline Sulfur Content on Emissions
13.3.1 The Effect of Sulfur on Tailpipe Emissions
13.3.2 The Effect of Sulfur on Durability of Aftertreatment Systems.
13.3.3 The Effect of Sulfur on Onboard Diagnostics.