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Front Cover
Plant Factory
Plant Factory: An Indoor Vertical Farming System for Efficient Quality Food Production
Copyright
Contents
Contributors
Preface
1 - Overview and concept of closed plant production system (CPPS)
1 - Introduction
References
2 - Role of the plant factory with artificial lighting (PFAL) in urban areas
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Interrelated global issues to be solved concurrently
2.3 Resource inflow and waste outflow in urban areas
2.4 Energy and material balance in Urban ecosystems
2.4.1 Photoautotrophs (plants) and heterotrophs (animals and microorganisms)
2.4.2 Waste produced in urban areas as an essential resource for growing plants
2.4.3 Plant production systems integrated with other biological systems
2.4.4 Role of organic fertilizers and microorganisms in the soil
2.4.5 Stability and controllability of the environment in plant production systems
2.4.6 Key indices for sustainable food production
2.4.7 What is "PFAL"?
Definition
Scientific benefits of PFALs
2.4.8 Plants suited and unsuited to PFALs
2.5 Growing social needs and interest in PFALs
2.6 Criticisms of PFALs and responses to them
2.6.1 Introduction
2.6.2 Initial cost is too high
2.6.3 Production cost is too high
2.6.4 Electricity cost is too high, whereas solar light is free
2.6.5 Labor cost is too high
2.6.6 PFAL-grown vegetables are neither tasty nor nutritious
2.6.7 Most PFALs are not making a profit
2.6.8 Land price is too high
2.6.9 Water consumption for irrigation is too high
2.6.10 PFALs can only produce leafy greens-minor vegetables-economically
2.7 Toward a sustainable PFAL
2.7.1 Requirements for a sustainable PFAL
2.7.2 Factors affecting the sustainability of PFALs.
Positive aspects affecting environmental, resource, social, and economic sustainability
Factors to be solved to improve sustainability
2.7.3 Similarities between the Earth, space farms, autonomous cities, and PFALs
2.8 Conclusion
References
3 - PFAL business and R&
D in Asia and North America: status and perspectives
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Japan
3.2.1 Brief history and current status of the PFAL business
3.2.2 Research and development
3.2.3 Public service
3.3 Taiwan
3.3.1 Status of PFALs in Taiwan
3.3.2 PFAL expo in Taiwan
3.3.3 PFAL research
Cost comparison of PFALs
Spectra of LEDs used in PFAL
WSN in PFAL
Ion-selective sensors for nutrient detection
Nondestructive plant growth measurement system
LED tubes with adjustable spectrum and intensity
UV and FR for phytochemical production and morphogenesis research
Low-potassium lettuce production for ESRD patients
3.3.4 Business models of PFAL in Taiwan
3.3.5 Conclusions
3.4 Korea
3.4.1 PFALs, an icon of innovation in future production and consumption
3.4.2 Research and technical development (RTD)
3.4.3 Private companies and farms in the PFAL business
3.4.4 Achievements and challenges
3.5 China
3.5.1 Development and current status of PFALs in China
3.5.2 Research activities
3.5.3 Typical PFALs and case studies
Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences
Beijing research centre of intelligent equipment for agriculture, Beijing academy of agriculture and forestry sciences
South China agricultural university
AEssense
Beijing Kingpeng international hi-tech corporation
Sanan sino-science
Shouguang
3.5.4 Conclusion
3.6 Thailand
3.6.1 R&
D on PFALs in Thailand
3.6.2 R&
D and business in the private sector
3.6.3 Policy and future prospects for PFALs.
3.7 North America
3.7.1 History
3.7.2 Contribution of space science
3.7.3 Current status and future prospects
References
Further reading
4 - Vertical farming in Europe: present status and outlook
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Vertical farming nonprofit sector associations
4.3 The entrepreneurial landscape
4.3.1 Overview
4.3.2 Examples for each vertical farming typology
PFAL
Container farm
In-store farm
Appliance farm
4.3.3 A deeper look into the Dutch vertical farming landscape
4.3.4 Projects expected to be completed in the near future
4.3.5 Examples of vertical farming as a new market for established European companies
4.4 Final remarks and conclusions
Acknowledgments
References
5 - Plant factory as a resource-efficient closed plant production system
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Definition and principal components of PFAL
5.3 Definition of resource use efficiency
5.3.1 Water use efficiency
5.3.2 CO2 use efficiency
5.3.3 Light energy use efficiency of lamps and plant community
5.3.4 Electrical energy use efficiency of lighting
5.3.5 Electrical energy use efficiency of heat pumps for cooling
5.3.6 Inorganic fertilizer use efficiency
5.4 Representative values of resource use efficiency
5.5 Electricity consumption and cost
5.6 Improving light energy use efficiency
5.6.1 Introduction
5.6.2 Interplant lighting and upward lighting
5.6.3 Improving the ratio of light energy received by leaves
5.6.4 Using LEDs
5.6.5 Controlling environmental factors other than light
5.6.6 Controlling air current speed
5.6.7 Increasing the salable portion of plants
5.6.8 Increasing annual production capacity and sales volume per unit land area
5.7 Estimation of rates of photosynthesis, transpiration, and water and nutrient uptake
5.7.1 Introduction.
5.7.2 Net photosynthetic rate
5.7.3 Transpiration rate
5.7.4 Water uptake rate by plants
5.7.5 Ion uptake rate by plants
5.7.6 Application
5.8 Coefficient of performance of heat pump
References
6 - Micro- and mini-PFALs for improving the quality of life in urban areas
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Characteristics and types of m-PFALs
6.3 m-PFALs in various scenes
6.3.1 Homes
6.3.2 Restaurants and shopping centers
6.3.3 Schools and community centers
6.3.4 Hospitals
6.3.5 Offices
6.3.6 Small shops and rental m-PFALs
6.4 Design concept of m-PFALs
6.5 m-PFALs connected by the internet
6.6 Advanced usage of m-PFAL
6.6.1 Connecting with a virtual m-PFAL
6.6.2 Visualizing plant growth as affected by energy and material balance
6.6.3 Maximizing productivity and benefits using minimum resources
6.6.4 Learning the basics of an ecosystem
6.6.5 Challenges
6.7 m-PFALs connected with other biosystems as a model ecosystem
6.8 Light source and lighting system design
Acknowledgments
References
7 - Rooftop plant production systems in urban areas
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Rooftop plant production
7.2.1 Raised-bed production
7.2.2 Continuous row farming
7.2.3 Hydroponic greenhouse growing
7.3 Building integration
7.3.1 Stormwater management
7.3.2 Energy use reductions
References
2 - Basics of physics and physiology - Environments and their effects
8 - Light sources
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Classification of light sources
8.3 Light-emitting diodes
8.3.1 General benefits
8.3.2 Outline of the light-emitting mechanism
8.3.3 Configuration types
8.3.4 Basic terms expressing electrical and optical characteristics
8.3.5 Electrical and thermal characteristics in operation
8.3.6 Lighting and light intensity control methods.
8.3.7 Lesser-known benefits and disadvantages related to use
8.3.8 LED modules with different color LEDs for PFALs
8.3.9 Pulsed light and its effects
8.3.10 Description of LED luminaire performance for plant cultivation
8.4 Fluorescent lamps
8.4.1 General benefits
8.4.2 Configuration of tubular fluorescent lamps
8.4.3 Outline of the light emission mechanism and process
8.4.4 Relative spectral radiant flux of light emitted from a fluorescent lamp
References
9 - Plant responses to light
9.1 Physical properties of light and its measurement
9.1.1 Physical properties
9.1.2 Light measurement
9.2 Plant responses to light environments
9.2.1 Photoreceptors
Phytochromes
Cryptochromes
Phototropins
Members of the Zeitlupe family
UV resistance locus 8
9.2.2 Plant response to light intensity, photoperiod, and daily light integral
9.2.3 Plant response to light quality
Red and blue light
Red and far-red light
Green light
UV light
9.3 Conclusion
References
10 - LED advancements for plant-factory artificial lighting
10.1 Need for CEA of all kinds
10.2 All-important energy costs
10.3 Pre-LED era
10.4 Enter light-emitting diodes (LEDs)
10.5 History of LED use for plant lighting
10.6 First LED/plant-growth tests
10.7 NASA spinoff
10.8 Sorting out the spectral contributions of LED wavebands
10.9 Red light
10.10 Blue light
10.11 Green light
10.12 Far-red light
10.13 White light from LEDs
10.14 UV radiation from LEDs
10.15 Advances in LEDs for PFAL
10.16 Intrinsic LED efficiency
10.17 Advances in LED utilization
10.18 Distribution of light from LEDs
10.19 Leveraging the unique properties of LEDs
10.20 Phasic co-optimization of LED lighting with the aerial environment.
10.21 Multiple light/growth prescriptions simultaneously in a warehouse.
Plant Factory
Plant Factory: An Indoor Vertical Farming System for Efficient Quality Food Production
Copyright
Contents
Contributors
Preface
1 - Overview and concept of closed plant production system (CPPS)
1 - Introduction
References
2 - Role of the plant factory with artificial lighting (PFAL) in urban areas
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Interrelated global issues to be solved concurrently
2.3 Resource inflow and waste outflow in urban areas
2.4 Energy and material balance in Urban ecosystems
2.4.1 Photoautotrophs (plants) and heterotrophs (animals and microorganisms)
2.4.2 Waste produced in urban areas as an essential resource for growing plants
2.4.3 Plant production systems integrated with other biological systems
2.4.4 Role of organic fertilizers and microorganisms in the soil
2.4.5 Stability and controllability of the environment in plant production systems
2.4.6 Key indices for sustainable food production
2.4.7 What is "PFAL"?
Definition
Scientific benefits of PFALs
2.4.8 Plants suited and unsuited to PFALs
2.5 Growing social needs and interest in PFALs
2.6 Criticisms of PFALs and responses to them
2.6.1 Introduction
2.6.2 Initial cost is too high
2.6.3 Production cost is too high
2.6.4 Electricity cost is too high, whereas solar light is free
2.6.5 Labor cost is too high
2.6.6 PFAL-grown vegetables are neither tasty nor nutritious
2.6.7 Most PFALs are not making a profit
2.6.8 Land price is too high
2.6.9 Water consumption for irrigation is too high
2.6.10 PFALs can only produce leafy greens-minor vegetables-economically
2.7 Toward a sustainable PFAL
2.7.1 Requirements for a sustainable PFAL
2.7.2 Factors affecting the sustainability of PFALs.
Positive aspects affecting environmental, resource, social, and economic sustainability
Factors to be solved to improve sustainability
2.7.3 Similarities between the Earth, space farms, autonomous cities, and PFALs
2.8 Conclusion
References
3 - PFAL business and R&
D in Asia and North America: status and perspectives
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Japan
3.2.1 Brief history and current status of the PFAL business
3.2.2 Research and development
3.2.3 Public service
3.3 Taiwan
3.3.1 Status of PFALs in Taiwan
3.3.2 PFAL expo in Taiwan
3.3.3 PFAL research
Cost comparison of PFALs
Spectra of LEDs used in PFAL
WSN in PFAL
Ion-selective sensors for nutrient detection
Nondestructive plant growth measurement system
LED tubes with adjustable spectrum and intensity
UV and FR for phytochemical production and morphogenesis research
Low-potassium lettuce production for ESRD patients
3.3.4 Business models of PFAL in Taiwan
3.3.5 Conclusions
3.4 Korea
3.4.1 PFALs, an icon of innovation in future production and consumption
3.4.2 Research and technical development (RTD)
3.4.3 Private companies and farms in the PFAL business
3.4.4 Achievements and challenges
3.5 China
3.5.1 Development and current status of PFALs in China
3.5.2 Research activities
3.5.3 Typical PFALs and case studies
Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences
Beijing research centre of intelligent equipment for agriculture, Beijing academy of agriculture and forestry sciences
South China agricultural university
AEssense
Beijing Kingpeng international hi-tech corporation
Sanan sino-science
Shouguang
3.5.4 Conclusion
3.6 Thailand
3.6.1 R&
D on PFALs in Thailand
3.6.2 R&
D and business in the private sector
3.6.3 Policy and future prospects for PFALs.
3.7 North America
3.7.1 History
3.7.2 Contribution of space science
3.7.3 Current status and future prospects
References
Further reading
4 - Vertical farming in Europe: present status and outlook
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Vertical farming nonprofit sector associations
4.3 The entrepreneurial landscape
4.3.1 Overview
4.3.2 Examples for each vertical farming typology
PFAL
Container farm
In-store farm
Appliance farm
4.3.3 A deeper look into the Dutch vertical farming landscape
4.3.4 Projects expected to be completed in the near future
4.3.5 Examples of vertical farming as a new market for established European companies
4.4 Final remarks and conclusions
Acknowledgments
References
5 - Plant factory as a resource-efficient closed plant production system
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Definition and principal components of PFAL
5.3 Definition of resource use efficiency
5.3.1 Water use efficiency
5.3.2 CO2 use efficiency
5.3.3 Light energy use efficiency of lamps and plant community
5.3.4 Electrical energy use efficiency of lighting
5.3.5 Electrical energy use efficiency of heat pumps for cooling
5.3.6 Inorganic fertilizer use efficiency
5.4 Representative values of resource use efficiency
5.5 Electricity consumption and cost
5.6 Improving light energy use efficiency
5.6.1 Introduction
5.6.2 Interplant lighting and upward lighting
5.6.3 Improving the ratio of light energy received by leaves
5.6.4 Using LEDs
5.6.5 Controlling environmental factors other than light
5.6.6 Controlling air current speed
5.6.7 Increasing the salable portion of plants
5.6.8 Increasing annual production capacity and sales volume per unit land area
5.7 Estimation of rates of photosynthesis, transpiration, and water and nutrient uptake
5.7.1 Introduction.
5.7.2 Net photosynthetic rate
5.7.3 Transpiration rate
5.7.4 Water uptake rate by plants
5.7.5 Ion uptake rate by plants
5.7.6 Application
5.8 Coefficient of performance of heat pump
References
6 - Micro- and mini-PFALs for improving the quality of life in urban areas
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Characteristics and types of m-PFALs
6.3 m-PFALs in various scenes
6.3.1 Homes
6.3.2 Restaurants and shopping centers
6.3.3 Schools and community centers
6.3.4 Hospitals
6.3.5 Offices
6.3.6 Small shops and rental m-PFALs
6.4 Design concept of m-PFALs
6.5 m-PFALs connected by the internet
6.6 Advanced usage of m-PFAL
6.6.1 Connecting with a virtual m-PFAL
6.6.2 Visualizing plant growth as affected by energy and material balance
6.6.3 Maximizing productivity and benefits using minimum resources
6.6.4 Learning the basics of an ecosystem
6.6.5 Challenges
6.7 m-PFALs connected with other biosystems as a model ecosystem
6.8 Light source and lighting system design
Acknowledgments
References
7 - Rooftop plant production systems in urban areas
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Rooftop plant production
7.2.1 Raised-bed production
7.2.2 Continuous row farming
7.2.3 Hydroponic greenhouse growing
7.3 Building integration
7.3.1 Stormwater management
7.3.2 Energy use reductions
References
2 - Basics of physics and physiology - Environments and their effects
8 - Light sources
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Classification of light sources
8.3 Light-emitting diodes
8.3.1 General benefits
8.3.2 Outline of the light-emitting mechanism
8.3.3 Configuration types
8.3.4 Basic terms expressing electrical and optical characteristics
8.3.5 Electrical and thermal characteristics in operation
8.3.6 Lighting and light intensity control methods.
8.3.7 Lesser-known benefits and disadvantages related to use
8.3.8 LED modules with different color LEDs for PFALs
8.3.9 Pulsed light and its effects
8.3.10 Description of LED luminaire performance for plant cultivation
8.4 Fluorescent lamps
8.4.1 General benefits
8.4.2 Configuration of tubular fluorescent lamps
8.4.3 Outline of the light emission mechanism and process
8.4.4 Relative spectral radiant flux of light emitted from a fluorescent lamp
References
9 - Plant responses to light
9.1 Physical properties of light and its measurement
9.1.1 Physical properties
9.1.2 Light measurement
9.2 Plant responses to light environments
9.2.1 Photoreceptors
Phytochromes
Cryptochromes
Phototropins
Members of the Zeitlupe family
UV resistance locus 8
9.2.2 Plant response to light intensity, photoperiod, and daily light integral
9.2.3 Plant response to light quality
Red and blue light
Red and far-red light
Green light
UV light
9.3 Conclusion
References
10 - LED advancements for plant-factory artificial lighting
10.1 Need for CEA of all kinds
10.2 All-important energy costs
10.3 Pre-LED era
10.4 Enter light-emitting diodes (LEDs)
10.5 History of LED use for plant lighting
10.6 First LED/plant-growth tests
10.7 NASA spinoff
10.8 Sorting out the spectral contributions of LED wavebands
10.9 Red light
10.10 Blue light
10.11 Green light
10.12 Far-red light
10.13 White light from LEDs
10.14 UV radiation from LEDs
10.15 Advances in LEDs for PFAL
10.16 Intrinsic LED efficiency
10.17 Advances in LED utilization
10.18 Distribution of light from LEDs
10.19 Leveraging the unique properties of LEDs
10.20 Phasic co-optimization of LED lighting with the aerial environment.
10.21 Multiple light/growth prescriptions simultaneously in a warehouse.