Sex Estimation of the Human Skeleton : History, Methods, and Emerging Techniques. Sex estimation of the human skeleton : history, methods, and emerging techniques / edited by Alexandra R Klales.

Intro
Sex Estimation of the Human Skeleton: History, Methods, and Emerging Techniques
Copyright
Contents
Contributors
About the contributors
About the editor
Acknowledgments
Introduction to sex estimation and this volume
Brief introduction to sex estimation
Terminology
Sex assessment vs. sex determination vs. sex estimation
Nonmetric vs. morphological vs. qualitative methods vs. macromorphoscopic/morphoscopic
Sex vs. gender
Masculine/feminine expression vs. robust/gracile expression
Bone terminology
Introduction to this book
Goals of this work
Format of this book
Conclusion
References
Part 1: Introduction to sex estimation
Chapter 1: A history of sex estimation of human skeletal remains
Introduction
History of human skeletal sex estimation
Human anatomy
Human osteology
Describing and understanding sex differences
Forensic applications
Research in sex estimation
Conclusion
References
Chapter 2: Practitioner preferences for sex estimation from human skeletal remains
Introduction
Materials and methods
Results
Education
Current status and affiliations
Experience
Sex estimation preferences
Skull
Pelvis
Long bones
Reporting
Conclusion
References
Chapter 3: Applications of sex estimation in paleoanthropology, bioarchaeology, and forensic anthropology
Introduction
Skeletal sex estimation in paleoanthropology
Skeletal sex estimation in bioarchaeology
Skeletal sex estimation in forensic anthropology
Conclusion
References
Chapter 4: The confusion between biological sex and gender and potential implications of misinterpretations
Defining sex
Variations in sexual development
Case study: Defining male and female in athletics
Defining gender
Why so much confusion?.

Implications in forensic and biological anthropology
Conclusion
References
Chapter 5: Effect of sex misclassification on the skeletal biological profile
Introduction
Sex and age estimation
Sex and ancestry estimation
Sex and stature estimation
Positively identified forensic cases
Ancestry
Age
Stature
Case study
Conclusion
References
Part 2: Methods for sex estimation
Section A: Morphological
Chapter 6: Sex estimation using pelvis morphology
Introduction
Morphological pelvis traits
Ventral arc
Obturator foramen shape
True (lesser) pelvis
Sacral shape
Subpubic concavity angle
Pubis shape
Muscle markings
Parturition markers
Acetabulum size and orientation
Greater sciatic notch
Ischiopubic ramus
Composite arch/arc compose
Other features
Employing morphological pelvic traits in sex estimation
Limitations of morphological methods
Current trends
Recommendations
Conclusion
References
Chapter 7: Adult sex estimation from cranial morphological traits
Traditional morphological trait analyses
Walker (2008) method validation
Validation of Walker scoring method
Validation of Walker discriminant functions
Effects of other variables on cranial traits and sex estimation
Population variation
Age
Body size
Function
Applications of different methods
Quantifying the traits
Conclusion
References
Chapter 8: Analyses of the postcranial skeleton for sex estimation
Introduction and overview of sex estimation from the postcranium
Sex-based differences in skeletal robusticity and rugosity
Morphological postcranial sex estimation in practice
Conclusion
References
Chapter 9: Parturition markers and skeletal sex estimation
Introduction
Origins of dorsal pubic pitting and the preauricular sulcus/groove.

Diverse sample origins and biological profile accuracy
Methodological concerns
Untangling correlation and causality
Metaanalysis: A quantitative approach to the current status of parturition scars
Future research
Conclusion
References
Section B: Metric
Chapter 10: Dentition in the estimation of sex
Dental development
Primates and evolution
Sexual dimorphism of dental morphology
Sexual dimorphism of dental size
Conclusions
References
Chapter 11: Metric methods for estimating sex utilizing the pelvis
Historical overview of metric methods
The initial metric methods: Indices
Recent advances in metric methodology
Case study
The Erie County Poorhouse skeletal collection
Background
Sex estimation
Materials and methods
Results
Discussion
Conclusion
References
Chapter 12: Sexual dimorphism variation in Fordisc samples
Introduction
Craniometric sexual dimorphism
Sexing Forensic Data Bank (FDB) and Thai samples using Fordisc 3.1
Howells samples
Comparison of FDB and Howells samples
Dimorphism in size and shape
Postcranial sexual dimorphism
Conclusions
Howells vs. FDB
Use of stepwise in variable selection
Size and shape
Postcranial vs. cranial data
References
Section C: Statistics &
databases
Chapter 13: Statistical approaches to sex estimation
Introduction
A review of statistical approaches to sex estimation
Morphological
Metric
Machine learning
``Illegal statisticizing:́́ The measurement statistics controversy
Testing the Measurement-Statistics Controversy as related to sex estimation
Conclusion
References
Chapter 14: Subadult sex estimation and KidStats
Introduction
Complex underpinnings of sexual differentiation and sexual dimorphism
Why does the pedagogical mantra exist?
Crania.

Postcrania
Reconsideration of previous subadult sex research
Factors impacting sex estimation
Secular trends
Expression of adult sex indicators in subadults
Population variation and size differences
Case study: Comparing long bone dimensions from South Africa and the United States
Sample sizes and predictive power of indicators
Incorporating multiple anatomical areas
Software for performing subadult sex estimation: KidStats
Conclusion
References
Chapter 15: DSP: A probabilistic approach to sex estimation free from population specificity using innominate measurements
Introduction
The whole is more than just the sum of its parts
Searching for reproducible and objective dimensions integrating sexual dimorphism
Pubis/ischium proportions measurements
Measurements of the greater sciatic notch
Selection and final decision on the variables for DSP
Material and methods
Samples
Calibration sample
Validation sample
Measurements
Statistical processing of innominate data
DSP2 software
Study design
Results
Sex classification accuracy
Sex classification reliability
Robustness to measurement uncertainty
Discussion and conclusions
References
Chapter 16: MorphoPASSE: Morphological pelvis and skull sex estimation program
Background and rationale
About MorphoPASSE
Scoring procedures
Statistical options
Interface
Conclusion
References
Part 3: Current considerations
Chapter 17: Factors of population variation in sex estimation methodology
Regional variation of human growth patterns
Skeletal sexual dimorphism
Skull
Hyoid
Scapula/Clavicle
Sternum
Vertebrae
Humerus, radius, and ulna
Femur and tibia
Patella
Pelvis
General approaches
Discussion
Conclusion
References
Chapter 18: Secular change.

Introduction
Evidence of secular change
Implications for estimating sex from skeletal data
Morphological sex estimation
Metric sex estimation
Conclusion
References
Chapter 19: The effects of skeletal asymmetry on accurate sex classification
Introduction
Defining asymmetry
Asymmetry from the lens of forensic anthropology and bioarchaeology
Potential impact of limb asymmetry on accurate sex estimation
Impact of skull and pelvic asymmetry on accurate morphological sex estimation
Further explorations of pelvic asymmetry
Impact of sex, age, ancestry, region, and temporal period on morphological pelvic asymmetry
Link between directional asymmetry and sex biases observed in validation studies of the pelvis
Frequency and direction of asymmetry in pelvic measurements
Conclusion
References
Chapter 20: Cognitive bias in sex estimation: The influence of context on forensic decision-making
Introduction
Human cognition and cognitive bias
Research in cognitive bias and forensic science
Cognitive bias and forensic anthropology
Sex assessments and cognitive bias
Future directions
Conclusion
References
Chapter 21: Sex determination using DNA and its impact on biological anthropology
Introduction
DNA extraction from skeletal material
Impacts of DNA-based sex determination on the field of biological anthropology
Impacts of DNA-based sex determination on forensic anthropological casework
Conclusion
Legal disclaimer
References
Chapter 22: The application of medical imaging to the anthropological estimation of sex
Use of medical imaging in anthropological estimations of sex
X-rays
Computed tomography
Utility of MSCT in disaster victim identification
Utility of MSCT in archaeological contexts
Magnetic resonance imaging
Limitations
Conclusion.

References.