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Table of Contents
Intro
Applied Welding Engineering: Processes, Codes, and Standards
Copyright
Dedication
Contents
Preface to the first edition
Preface to the second edition
Preface to the third edition
Acknowledgments
Section 1: Introduction to Basic Metallurgy
Chapter 1: Introduction
Pure metals and alloys
Smelting
Iron
Sponge iron
Chapter 2: Alloys
Alloys
Effects of alloying elements
Carbon steels
Sulfur
Manganese
Phosphorous
Silicon
Alloy steels
The effect of alloying elements on ferrite
Effects of alloying elements on carbide
Chapter 3: Physical metallurgy
Crystal lattices
Crystal structure nomenclature
Solidification
Lever rule of solidification
Constitutional supercooling
Elementary theory of nucleation
Allotropy
Crystal imperfections
Grain size
Low-temperature ductility and notch toughness of steel
Chapter 4: Structure of materials
Phase diagrams
Different types of phase diagrams
Iron-iron carbide phase diagram
Explanation of iron-carbon phase diagram
Rationale for letter designations in iron-iron carbide phase diagram
Chapter 5: Production of steel
Electric arc furnace (EAF) process
Furnace charging
Melting
Refining
Phosphorus removal
Sulfur removal
Nitrogen and hydrogen control
Deslagging
Tapping
Basic oxygen furnace (BOF)
Refining reactions
Carbon
Silicon
Manganese
Phosphorus
Sulfur removal
Deoxidation of steel
Rimmed steel
Capped steel
Semikilled steel
Killed steel
Deoxidation equilibria
Practical case emphasizing the importance of deoxidation of steel for critical welding applications
Iron-iron carbide phase diagram
Chapter 6: Classification of steels
Carbon steels
Low-carbon
Medium-carbon
High-carbon
Ultrahigh-carbon.
High-strength low-alloy steels (HSLA)
Classification of high-strength low-alloy steels
Low-alloy steels
Low-carbon quenched and tempered steels
Medium-carbon ultrahigh-strength steels
Bearing steels
Chromium-molybdenum heat-resistant steels
AISI series
Material classification through the processing methods
Recrystallization rolling
Dynamic recrystallization-controlled rolling
Chapter 7: Cast iron and cast steel
Types of cast iron
White cast iron
Malleable cast iron
Ferritic malleable iron
White heart cast iron
Black heart cast iron
Pearlite malleable cast iron
Martensitic malleable iron
Gray cast iron
Castability of gray cast iron
Chilled cast iron
Nodular (spheroidal graphite) cast iron
Castability, solidification, and shrinkage
Alloy cast irons
Corrosion, wear, abrasion, and heat resistance of alloy cast irons
Classification of special high-alloy cast irons
Graphite free
High-silicon cast irons
High-chromium cast irons (Ni-hard)
High-nickel cast irons (Ni-resist)
Austenitic gray cast irons
Steel castings
ASTM A 781/A 781M: Castings, steel and alloy, common requirements for general industrial use
ASTM A 703/A 703M: Steel castings, general requirements for pressure containing parts
ASTM A 957: Investment castings, steel and alloy, common requirements for general industrial use
ASTM A 985: Steel investment castings-General requirements for pressure-containing parts
ISO 4990: Steel castings-General technical delivery requirements
Chapter 8: Stainless steels and other CRAs
Stainless steel production
Forming
Heat treatment
Cutting stainless steel
Finishing
Fabrication of stainless steel
Welding and joining
Types of stainless steels
Classification of stainless steel
Martensitic stainless steels.
Properties of martensitic stainless steel
Ferritic stainless steels
Properties of ferritic stainless steel
Pitting resistance equivalent
Austenitic stainless steels
Properties of austenitic stainless steel
Duplex stainless steels
Properties of duplex stainless steel
Precipitation-hardening stainless steels
Properties of precipitation-hardening stainless steel
Chapter 9: Nonferrous materials
Copper and copper alloys
Aluminum and aluminum alloys
Physical metallurgy of aluminum
Effect of alloying elements on aluminum
Effect of iron
Effect of silicon
Effect of manganese
Effect of magnesium
Effect of copper
Effect of zinc
Effect of chromium
Effect of zirconium
Effect of lithium
Age-hardenable alloys
Nickel and nickel alloys
Titanium and titanium alloys
Chapter 10: Working with metals
Elastic limit
Plastic deformation
Fracture
Polycrystalline material
Cold-working
Stored energy
Restoring the lattice structure of metal after cold-work-Annealing
Grain growth
Hot-working
Chapter 11: Mechanical properties and testing of metals
Strength of materials
Elastic and plastic behavior
Ductile vs brittle behavior
Failure
Fracture
Fracture control
Crack growth and fracture
Damage tolerance
Failure analysis
Testing of metals
Tensile test
Hardness test
Impact test
Creep test
Fatigue test
Chapter 12: Heat treatment of steels
TTT and CCT curves
Isothermal-transformation (IT) or (TTT) diagrams
Cooling curves
Cooling-transformation (C-T) diagrams
Stress relief annealing
Normalizing
Annealing
Spheroidizing
Tempering
Austempering of steels
Martempering
Hardening
Hardening by martensite transformation
Case hardening and carburizing
Liquid salt bath nitriding.
Process of quenching
Heat treatment of nonferrous material
Heat treatment of copper and copper alloys
Heat-treating aluminum and its alloys
Heat-treating titanium
Heat-treating furnaces
Liquid heating bath
Section 2: Welding Metallurgy and Welding Processes
Chapter 1: Introduction
Welding procedures
Chapter 2: Physics of welding
Heat
Detail of the heat flow in welding
Heat in arc-welding processes
Heat in plasma arc cutting and welding
Heat in resistance welding
Heat in electroslag welding (ESW)
Heat in welding process using chemical sources
Thermit welding
Heat generated by mechanical processes
Heat by focused sources
Laser-beam welding (LBW)
Electron-beam welding (EBW)
Other sources of heat in welding
Application of the principles of welding physics
Preheating
Determining the need for preheat and the temperature
Postweld heat treatment (PWHT)
Heat and time in welding
Heat input
Energy distribution
Rate of heating
Maximum temperature
Heat generation and temperature distribution-Practical application
Time at temperature
Cooling rates
Base metal mass
Chapter 3: Welding and joining processes
Shielded metal arc welding (SMAW)
Process fundamentals
How the process works
Covered electrodes used in SMAW process
Joint design and preparation
Gas tungsten arc welding
Process description
Process advantages and limitations
Electrodes
Joint design
Gas metal arc welding
Process description
Electrode selection
Joint design
Gas metal arc welding: Newer variants
The pulse arc systems
Calculating heat input in pulsed arc GMAW
Flux cored arc welding (FCAW)
Process fundamentals
Principal applications of FCAW
Shielding gases
Electrodes
Submerged arc welding (SAW)
Process description.
Materials
Other common joining and welding processes
Electroslag welding (ESW)
Plasma arc welding
Stud welding
Oxyfuel gas welding
Brazing and soldering
Hyperbaric welding
Arc-welding power sources
Constant-voltage power source
Constant-current power source
Transformers
Thyristor-silicon controlled rectifiers (SCR)
Development of square wave AC power sources
Generators
Alternator
Chapter 4: Welding automation
Mechanized and automatic welding
Welding automation and robots
Degrees of freedom (DOF)
Workspace
Six-joint rotation axes
Position control
Sensing and accuracy
Designing for robotic automation and selecting automation for welding
Productivity by robotic automation of welding
Quality of welding with the use of robots in welding
Safety associated with use of robots in automation of welding
Economics of using robots in welding automation
Further reading
Chapter 5: Physical effect of heat on material during welding
The molten metal
The welded plate
Influence of cooling rate
Chapter 6: Stresses, shrinkage, and distortion in weldments
Stresses in weldments
Definitions of terms
Residual stress
Structure stress
Reaction stress
Stress concentration
Development of stresses
Moving localized heat source
Distribution of stress in a simple weld
Residual stresses
Shrinkages
Shrinkage transverse to a butt weld
Shrinkage longitudinal to a butt weld
Distortion in weldments
General description
Angular distortion
Longitudinal bowing
Buckling
Corrective measures
Thermal straightening
Designing weld joints
Assessing the strength of welds
Throat of a weld
Sizing a fillet weld
Fillet welds
Stress causing fatigue in weld
Weld size and cost control.
Control of welding stresses to minimize through-thickness failures.
Applied Welding Engineering: Processes, Codes, and Standards
Copyright
Dedication
Contents
Preface to the first edition
Preface to the second edition
Preface to the third edition
Acknowledgments
Section 1: Introduction to Basic Metallurgy
Chapter 1: Introduction
Pure metals and alloys
Smelting
Iron
Sponge iron
Chapter 2: Alloys
Alloys
Effects of alloying elements
Carbon steels
Sulfur
Manganese
Phosphorous
Silicon
Alloy steels
The effect of alloying elements on ferrite
Effects of alloying elements on carbide
Chapter 3: Physical metallurgy
Crystal lattices
Crystal structure nomenclature
Solidification
Lever rule of solidification
Constitutional supercooling
Elementary theory of nucleation
Allotropy
Crystal imperfections
Grain size
Low-temperature ductility and notch toughness of steel
Chapter 4: Structure of materials
Phase diagrams
Different types of phase diagrams
Iron-iron carbide phase diagram
Explanation of iron-carbon phase diagram
Rationale for letter designations in iron-iron carbide phase diagram
Chapter 5: Production of steel
Electric arc furnace (EAF) process
Furnace charging
Melting
Refining
Phosphorus removal
Sulfur removal
Nitrogen and hydrogen control
Deslagging
Tapping
Basic oxygen furnace (BOF)
Refining reactions
Carbon
Silicon
Manganese
Phosphorus
Sulfur removal
Deoxidation of steel
Rimmed steel
Capped steel
Semikilled steel
Killed steel
Deoxidation equilibria
Practical case emphasizing the importance of deoxidation of steel for critical welding applications
Iron-iron carbide phase diagram
Chapter 6: Classification of steels
Carbon steels
Low-carbon
Medium-carbon
High-carbon
Ultrahigh-carbon.
High-strength low-alloy steels (HSLA)
Classification of high-strength low-alloy steels
Low-alloy steels
Low-carbon quenched and tempered steels
Medium-carbon ultrahigh-strength steels
Bearing steels
Chromium-molybdenum heat-resistant steels
AISI series
Material classification through the processing methods
Recrystallization rolling
Dynamic recrystallization-controlled rolling
Chapter 7: Cast iron and cast steel
Types of cast iron
White cast iron
Malleable cast iron
Ferritic malleable iron
White heart cast iron
Black heart cast iron
Pearlite malleable cast iron
Martensitic malleable iron
Gray cast iron
Castability of gray cast iron
Chilled cast iron
Nodular (spheroidal graphite) cast iron
Castability, solidification, and shrinkage
Alloy cast irons
Corrosion, wear, abrasion, and heat resistance of alloy cast irons
Classification of special high-alloy cast irons
Graphite free
High-silicon cast irons
High-chromium cast irons (Ni-hard)
High-nickel cast irons (Ni-resist)
Austenitic gray cast irons
Steel castings
ASTM A 781/A 781M: Castings, steel and alloy, common requirements for general industrial use
ASTM A 703/A 703M: Steel castings, general requirements for pressure containing parts
ASTM A 957: Investment castings, steel and alloy, common requirements for general industrial use
ASTM A 985: Steel investment castings-General requirements for pressure-containing parts
ISO 4990: Steel castings-General technical delivery requirements
Chapter 8: Stainless steels and other CRAs
Stainless steel production
Forming
Heat treatment
Cutting stainless steel
Finishing
Fabrication of stainless steel
Welding and joining
Types of stainless steels
Classification of stainless steel
Martensitic stainless steels.
Properties of martensitic stainless steel
Ferritic stainless steels
Properties of ferritic stainless steel
Pitting resistance equivalent
Austenitic stainless steels
Properties of austenitic stainless steel
Duplex stainless steels
Properties of duplex stainless steel
Precipitation-hardening stainless steels
Properties of precipitation-hardening stainless steel
Chapter 9: Nonferrous materials
Copper and copper alloys
Aluminum and aluminum alloys
Physical metallurgy of aluminum
Effect of alloying elements on aluminum
Effect of iron
Effect of silicon
Effect of manganese
Effect of magnesium
Effect of copper
Effect of zinc
Effect of chromium
Effect of zirconium
Effect of lithium
Age-hardenable alloys
Nickel and nickel alloys
Titanium and titanium alloys
Chapter 10: Working with metals
Elastic limit
Plastic deformation
Fracture
Polycrystalline material
Cold-working
Stored energy
Restoring the lattice structure of metal after cold-work-Annealing
Grain growth
Hot-working
Chapter 11: Mechanical properties and testing of metals
Strength of materials
Elastic and plastic behavior
Ductile vs brittle behavior
Failure
Fracture
Fracture control
Crack growth and fracture
Damage tolerance
Failure analysis
Testing of metals
Tensile test
Hardness test
Impact test
Creep test
Fatigue test
Chapter 12: Heat treatment of steels
TTT and CCT curves
Isothermal-transformation (IT) or (TTT) diagrams
Cooling curves
Cooling-transformation (C-T) diagrams
Stress relief annealing
Normalizing
Annealing
Spheroidizing
Tempering
Austempering of steels
Martempering
Hardening
Hardening by martensite transformation
Case hardening and carburizing
Liquid salt bath nitriding.
Process of quenching
Heat treatment of nonferrous material
Heat treatment of copper and copper alloys
Heat-treating aluminum and its alloys
Heat-treating titanium
Heat-treating furnaces
Liquid heating bath
Section 2: Welding Metallurgy and Welding Processes
Chapter 1: Introduction
Welding procedures
Chapter 2: Physics of welding
Heat
Detail of the heat flow in welding
Heat in arc-welding processes
Heat in plasma arc cutting and welding
Heat in resistance welding
Heat in electroslag welding (ESW)
Heat in welding process using chemical sources
Thermit welding
Heat generated by mechanical processes
Heat by focused sources
Laser-beam welding (LBW)
Electron-beam welding (EBW)
Other sources of heat in welding
Application of the principles of welding physics
Preheating
Determining the need for preheat and the temperature
Postweld heat treatment (PWHT)
Heat and time in welding
Heat input
Energy distribution
Rate of heating
Maximum temperature
Heat generation and temperature distribution-Practical application
Time at temperature
Cooling rates
Base metal mass
Chapter 3: Welding and joining processes
Shielded metal arc welding (SMAW)
Process fundamentals
How the process works
Covered electrodes used in SMAW process
Joint design and preparation
Gas tungsten arc welding
Process description
Process advantages and limitations
Electrodes
Joint design
Gas metal arc welding
Process description
Electrode selection
Joint design
Gas metal arc welding: Newer variants
The pulse arc systems
Calculating heat input in pulsed arc GMAW
Flux cored arc welding (FCAW)
Process fundamentals
Principal applications of FCAW
Shielding gases
Electrodes
Submerged arc welding (SAW)
Process description.
Materials
Other common joining and welding processes
Electroslag welding (ESW)
Plasma arc welding
Stud welding
Oxyfuel gas welding
Brazing and soldering
Hyperbaric welding
Arc-welding power sources
Constant-voltage power source
Constant-current power source
Transformers
Thyristor-silicon controlled rectifiers (SCR)
Development of square wave AC power sources
Generators
Alternator
Chapter 4: Welding automation
Mechanized and automatic welding
Welding automation and robots
Degrees of freedom (DOF)
Workspace
Six-joint rotation axes
Position control
Sensing and accuracy
Designing for robotic automation and selecting automation for welding
Productivity by robotic automation of welding
Quality of welding with the use of robots in welding
Safety associated with use of robots in automation of welding
Economics of using robots in welding automation
Further reading
Chapter 5: Physical effect of heat on material during welding
The molten metal
The welded plate
Influence of cooling rate
Chapter 6: Stresses, shrinkage, and distortion in weldments
Stresses in weldments
Definitions of terms
Residual stress
Structure stress
Reaction stress
Stress concentration
Development of stresses
Moving localized heat source
Distribution of stress in a simple weld
Residual stresses
Shrinkages
Shrinkage transverse to a butt weld
Shrinkage longitudinal to a butt weld
Distortion in weldments
General description
Angular distortion
Longitudinal bowing
Buckling
Corrective measures
Thermal straightening
Designing weld joints
Assessing the strength of welds
Throat of a weld
Sizing a fillet weld
Fillet welds
Stress causing fatigue in weld
Weld size and cost control.
Control of welding stresses to minimize through-thickness failures.