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EVOLUTIONARY NEUROSCIENCE
EVOLUTIONARY NEUROSCIENCE
Copyright
Contents
Contributors
1 - History, Concepts, and Theory
1 - A History of Ideas in Evolutionary Neuroscience
1.1 Common Plan versus Diversity
1.2 Scala Naturae versus Phylogenetic Bush
1.3 Relative Size versus Absolute Size
1.4 Natural Selection versus Developmental Constraints
1.5 One Law, Many Laws, or None
1.6 Conclusions and Prospects
References
Further Reading
2 - Phylogenetic Character Reconstruction
2.1 Introduction to Character State Reconstruction and Evolution
2.2 Basic Concepts
2.2.1 Homology: Similarity Due to Common Ancestry
2.2.2 Homoplasy: Convergence, Parallelism, and Reversal
2.2.3 Character State Polarity
2.2.4 Character or Trait Data
2.2.5 Adaptation
2.2.6 Phylogenetic Trees
2.3 Methods
2.3.1 Parsimony Optimization of Discrete Traits
2.3.2 Binary and Multistate Characters
2.3.3 Squared-Change and Linear Parsimony
2.3.4 Maximum Likelihood and Bayesian Optimization
2.3.5 Which Optimization Approach to Use?
2.3.6 Correlative Comparative Methods
2.4 Limitations of Methods
2.5 Conclusions
References
Further Reading
3 - The Role of Endocasts in the Study of Brain Evolution
3.1 Introduction
3.1.1 Crown, Stem, and the Heuristic Potential of Fossil Endocasts
3.2 Assessing the Anatomical Identity of Endocasts
3.2.1 Endocranial Cavity as Brain Proxy
3.2.2 What Anatomical Structures Share the Endocranial Cavity With the Brain and Thus Lower Brain-to-Endocranial Cavity Values?
3.2.3 Partial Endocasts
3.3 Endocast Contributions to Comparative Neuroscience
3.3.1 Comparative Morphology
3.3.2 Encephalization
3.3.3 Correlative Change
3.4 Concluding Remarks
References
4 - Invertebrate Origins of Vertebrate Nervous Systems.
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Correspondence of Major Brain Regions in Amphioxus and Vertebrates
4.2.1 Anatomy of the Amphioxus Central Nervous System
4.2.2 Initial Patterning of the Amphioxus Central Nervous System Is Comparable to That in Vertebrates
4.2.3 Amphioxus Has Homologs of the Vertebrate Anterior Neural Ridge, Zona Limitans Intrathalamica, and Midbrain/Hindbrain Boundary
4.2.4 Neuropeptide Expression Helps Reveal Homologies Between the Amphioxus and Vertebrate Brains
4.2.5 Evolution of Eyes
4.3 What Structures Did the Vertebrate Brain Invent?
4.3.1 Neural Crest
4.3.2 Placodes
4.4 What About Tunicates?
4.5 The Roots of the Chordate Nervous System
4.6 Where Did the Chordate Central Nervous System Come From?
4.7 Where Did the Ancestral Bilaterian Brain Come From?
4.8 Prevailing Scenarios for Evolution of the Central Nervous System
4.9 Conclusion
Acknowledgment
References
2 - The Brains of Fish, Amphibians, Reptiles, and Birds
5 - The Nervous Systems of Jawless Vertebrates
5.1 Introduction
5.2 General Aspects of the Agnathan Central Nervous System Morphology and Development
5.3 Forebrain (Secondary Prosencephalon and Diencephalon)
5.3.1 Secondary Prosencephalon (Telencephalon and Hypothalamus)
5.3.1.1 Telencephalon
5.3.1.2 Hypothalamus
5.3.2 Diencephalon
5.3.2.1 Prethalamus
5.3.2.2 Thalamus
5.3.2.3 Pretectum
5.3.2.4 Basal Diencephalon
5.4 Midbrain (Mesencephalon)
5.5 Hindbrain (Rhombencephalon)
5.5.1 Somatomotor Zone
5.5.2 Visceromotor Zone
5.5.3 Octavolateral System
5.5.4 General Somatosensory Zone
5.5.5 Viscerosensory Zone
5.6 Conclusions and Perspectives
References
6 - The Brains of Cartilaginous Fishes
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Neuroecology and Brain Size in Chondrichthyans
6.3 Evolutionary Changes in Brain Development.
6.3.1 Comparisons in Evo-devo
6.3.2 Main Stages of Catshark Brain Development
6.4 Regionalization of the Chondrichthyan Brain Based on Developmental, Genoarchitectonic, and Neurochemical Evidence
6.4.1 Prosencephalon
6.4.1.1 Telencephalon
6.4.1.1.1 Pallium
6.4.1.1.2 Subpallium
6.4.1.2 Hypothalamus
6.4.1.3 Diencephalon
6.4.2 Mesencephalon
6.4.2.1 Optic Tectum
6.4.2.2 Tegmentum
6.4.3 Rhombencephalon
6.4.3.1 Cerebellum
Acknowledgment
References
Further Reading
7 - The Organization of the Central Nervous System of Amphibians
7.1 Living Amphibians and Phylogenetic Relationships
7.2 Amphibian Brains, General Features, and Methods of Study
7.3 Forebrain
7.3.1 Telencephalon
7.3.1.1 Olfactory Bulbs
7.3.1.2 Pallium
7.3.1.3 Subpallium
7.3.1.3.1 Basal Ganglia
7.3.1.3.2 Amygdaloid Complex
7.3.1.3.3 Septum and Preoptic Area
7.3.2 Hypothalamus
7.3.2.1 Alar Regions
7.3.2.2 Basal Regions
7.3.3 Diencephalon
7.3.3.1 Prosomere p3
7.3.3.2 Prosomere p2
7.3.3.3 Prosomere p1
7.4 Midbrain
7.4.1 Optic Tectum
7.4.2 Torus Semicircularis
7.4.3 Mesencephalic Tegmentum
7.5 Hindbrain
7.5.1 Rostral Hindbrain (r0-r1)
7.5.2 Caudal Hindbrain (r2-r8)
7.6 Spinal Cord
Acknowledgments
References
Relevant Website
8 - The Brains of Reptiles and Birds
8.1 The Phylogeny of Reptiles and Birds
8.2 Reptilian and Avian Brains in Numbers
8.2.1 Brain Size and Cognition: A Difficult Relation
8.2.2 Brain Sizes in Reptilian and Avian Species
8.2.3 Neuron Numbers and Scaling Rules
8.3 The Structures of the Reptilian and the Avian Brain
8.3.1 The Sauropsid Spinal Cord
8.3.1.1 Reptilian and Avian Spinal Cords: Invariant Organization Despite Variances of Behavior
8.3.1.2 The Mystery and the Sobering Reality of the Sacral Brain.
8.3.2 Mesencephalon
8.3.2.1 The Infrared System of Snakes: Seeing the Heat
8.3.2.2 The Centrifugal Visual System: What the Brain Tells the Eye
8.3.2.2.1 The Centrifugal Visual System of Reptiles
8.3.2.2.2 The Centrifugal Visual System of Birds
8.3.2.3 Projections of the Optic Tectum: From Retinotopy to Functionotopy
8.3.3 Telencephalon
8.3.3.1 The Sauropsid Basal Ganglia
8.3.3.2 The Reptilian Pallium
8.3.3.2.1 The Reptilian Dorsal Cortex
8.3.3.2.2 The Reptilian Dorsal Ventricular Ridge
8.3.3.3 The Small World of the Avian Pallium
8.3.3.3.1 The Avian Wulst
8.3.3.3.2 The Avian Dorsal Ventricular Ridge
8.3.3.3.2.1 The Avian Premotor Arcopallium and the Pallial Amygdala
8.3.3.3.2.2 The Arcopallium as a Premotor Center of the Avian Dorsal Ventricular Ridge
8.3.3.3.2.2.1 The Avian Pallial Amygdala
8.3.3.3.2.3 Layers in a Nonlaminated Forebrain
8.3.3.3.2.4 The Avian "Prefrontal Cortex"
8.4 Functional Systems
8.4.1 Ascending Visual Systems
8.4.1.1 The Thalamofugal Visual Pathway in Reptiles and Birds
8.4.1.2 The Tectofugal Visual Pathway in Birds and Reptiles
8.4.2 Ascending Somatosensory Systems
8.4.3 The Olfactory System
8.4.3.1 The Olfactory System of Birds
8.4.3.2 The Olfactory System of Reptiles
8.4.4 Ascending Auditory Systems
8.4.5 The Avian Song System
8.5 Conclusion
References
9 - Function and Evolution of the Reptilian Cerebral Cortex
9.1 Introduction
9.1.1 Reptile Phylogeny
9.1.2 What Is the Cerebral Cortex?
9.1.2.1 Pallium Versus Cortex
9.1.2.2 Pallial Subdivisions
9.1.2.3 Some Essential Features of the Cerebral Cortex
9.1.2.3.1 Reptilian Cortex
9.1.3 Functional Architecture of Sensory Pathways to the Pallium in Reptiles
9.1.4 "Model Species" and the Need for Experimental Diversity
9.2 Cell Types in Reptilian Cortex.
9.2.1 Retinal Cell Types in Turtles, Ex Vivo Preparations of Nervous System in Reptiles
9.2.2 Cell Types in the Cerebral Cortex, With a Focus on Interneurons
9.2.3 Some Limitations of Cell Classification
9.3 Comparing Brain Areas and Cell Types Across Species
9.3.1 Theories of Cortical Evolution and Their Predictions
9.3.2 Conclusions: Simplicity, Evolution, and Function of the Reptilian Cortex
References
10 - The Cerebellum of Nonmammalian Vertebrates
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Gross Morphology of the Cerebellum
10.2.1 Agnathans
10.2.2 Cartilaginous Fishes
10.2.3 Amphibians and Nonavian Reptiles
10.2.4 Birds
10.2.5 Lobed-Finned Fishes
10.2.6 Ray-Finned Fishes
10.3 Cellular Organization of the Cerebellum
10.4 Variation in Relative Cerebellar Size and Cerebellar Foliation
10.5 Sagittal Zones of the Cerebellum
10.6 Conclusions and Future Directions
References
3 - Early Mammals and Subsequent Adaptations
11 - The Emergence of Mammals
11.1 Introduction
11.2 The Emergence of an Evolutionary View of Mammalia
11.3 The Phylogenetic System
11.4 The Ancestral Amniote
11.5 Pan-Mammalian History
11.5.1 Node 1: Synapsida
11.5.2 Node 2: Unnamed
11.5.3 Node 3: Sphenacodontia
11.5.4 Node 4: Therapsida
11.5.5 Node 5: Eutherapsida
11.5.6 Node 6: Unnamed
11.5.7 Node 7: Unnamed
11.5.8 Node 8: Eutheriodontia
11.5.9 Node 9: Cynodontia
11.5.10 Node 10: Eucynodontia
11.5.11 Node 11: Unnamed
11.5.12 Node 12: Unnamed
11.5.13 Node 13: Unnamed
11.5.14 Node 14: Mammaliamorpha
11.5.15 Node 15: Mammaliaformes
11.5.16 Node 16: Unnamed
11.5.17 Node 17: Crown Clade Mammalia
11.6 Discussion
References
12 - Mammalian Evolution: The Phylogenetics Story
12.1 Introduction
12.2 The Evolutionary Tree of Mammals
12.2.1 The Historical Perspective.
12.2.2 The Mammal Tree Today.
EVOLUTIONARY NEUROSCIENCE
EVOLUTIONARY NEUROSCIENCE
Copyright
Contents
Contributors
1 - History, Concepts, and Theory
1 - A History of Ideas in Evolutionary Neuroscience
1.1 Common Plan versus Diversity
1.2 Scala Naturae versus Phylogenetic Bush
1.3 Relative Size versus Absolute Size
1.4 Natural Selection versus Developmental Constraints
1.5 One Law, Many Laws, or None
1.6 Conclusions and Prospects
References
Further Reading
2 - Phylogenetic Character Reconstruction
2.1 Introduction to Character State Reconstruction and Evolution
2.2 Basic Concepts
2.2.1 Homology: Similarity Due to Common Ancestry
2.2.2 Homoplasy: Convergence, Parallelism, and Reversal
2.2.3 Character State Polarity
2.2.4 Character or Trait Data
2.2.5 Adaptation
2.2.6 Phylogenetic Trees
2.3 Methods
2.3.1 Parsimony Optimization of Discrete Traits
2.3.2 Binary and Multistate Characters
2.3.3 Squared-Change and Linear Parsimony
2.3.4 Maximum Likelihood and Bayesian Optimization
2.3.5 Which Optimization Approach to Use?
2.3.6 Correlative Comparative Methods
2.4 Limitations of Methods
2.5 Conclusions
References
Further Reading
3 - The Role of Endocasts in the Study of Brain Evolution
3.1 Introduction
3.1.1 Crown, Stem, and the Heuristic Potential of Fossil Endocasts
3.2 Assessing the Anatomical Identity of Endocasts
3.2.1 Endocranial Cavity as Brain Proxy
3.2.2 What Anatomical Structures Share the Endocranial Cavity With the Brain and Thus Lower Brain-to-Endocranial Cavity Values?
3.2.3 Partial Endocasts
3.3 Endocast Contributions to Comparative Neuroscience
3.3.1 Comparative Morphology
3.3.2 Encephalization
3.3.3 Correlative Change
3.4 Concluding Remarks
References
4 - Invertebrate Origins of Vertebrate Nervous Systems.
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Correspondence of Major Brain Regions in Amphioxus and Vertebrates
4.2.1 Anatomy of the Amphioxus Central Nervous System
4.2.2 Initial Patterning of the Amphioxus Central Nervous System Is Comparable to That in Vertebrates
4.2.3 Amphioxus Has Homologs of the Vertebrate Anterior Neural Ridge, Zona Limitans Intrathalamica, and Midbrain/Hindbrain Boundary
4.2.4 Neuropeptide Expression Helps Reveal Homologies Between the Amphioxus and Vertebrate Brains
4.2.5 Evolution of Eyes
4.3 What Structures Did the Vertebrate Brain Invent?
4.3.1 Neural Crest
4.3.2 Placodes
4.4 What About Tunicates?
4.5 The Roots of the Chordate Nervous System
4.6 Where Did the Chordate Central Nervous System Come From?
4.7 Where Did the Ancestral Bilaterian Brain Come From?
4.8 Prevailing Scenarios for Evolution of the Central Nervous System
4.9 Conclusion
Acknowledgment
References
2 - The Brains of Fish, Amphibians, Reptiles, and Birds
5 - The Nervous Systems of Jawless Vertebrates
5.1 Introduction
5.2 General Aspects of the Agnathan Central Nervous System Morphology and Development
5.3 Forebrain (Secondary Prosencephalon and Diencephalon)
5.3.1 Secondary Prosencephalon (Telencephalon and Hypothalamus)
5.3.1.1 Telencephalon
5.3.1.2 Hypothalamus
5.3.2 Diencephalon
5.3.2.1 Prethalamus
5.3.2.2 Thalamus
5.3.2.3 Pretectum
5.3.2.4 Basal Diencephalon
5.4 Midbrain (Mesencephalon)
5.5 Hindbrain (Rhombencephalon)
5.5.1 Somatomotor Zone
5.5.2 Visceromotor Zone
5.5.3 Octavolateral System
5.5.4 General Somatosensory Zone
5.5.5 Viscerosensory Zone
5.6 Conclusions and Perspectives
References
6 - The Brains of Cartilaginous Fishes
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Neuroecology and Brain Size in Chondrichthyans
6.3 Evolutionary Changes in Brain Development.
6.3.1 Comparisons in Evo-devo
6.3.2 Main Stages of Catshark Brain Development
6.4 Regionalization of the Chondrichthyan Brain Based on Developmental, Genoarchitectonic, and Neurochemical Evidence
6.4.1 Prosencephalon
6.4.1.1 Telencephalon
6.4.1.1.1 Pallium
6.4.1.1.2 Subpallium
6.4.1.2 Hypothalamus
6.4.1.3 Diencephalon
6.4.2 Mesencephalon
6.4.2.1 Optic Tectum
6.4.2.2 Tegmentum
6.4.3 Rhombencephalon
6.4.3.1 Cerebellum
Acknowledgment
References
Further Reading
7 - The Organization of the Central Nervous System of Amphibians
7.1 Living Amphibians and Phylogenetic Relationships
7.2 Amphibian Brains, General Features, and Methods of Study
7.3 Forebrain
7.3.1 Telencephalon
7.3.1.1 Olfactory Bulbs
7.3.1.2 Pallium
7.3.1.3 Subpallium
7.3.1.3.1 Basal Ganglia
7.3.1.3.2 Amygdaloid Complex
7.3.1.3.3 Septum and Preoptic Area
7.3.2 Hypothalamus
7.3.2.1 Alar Regions
7.3.2.2 Basal Regions
7.3.3 Diencephalon
7.3.3.1 Prosomere p3
7.3.3.2 Prosomere p2
7.3.3.3 Prosomere p1
7.4 Midbrain
7.4.1 Optic Tectum
7.4.2 Torus Semicircularis
7.4.3 Mesencephalic Tegmentum
7.5 Hindbrain
7.5.1 Rostral Hindbrain (r0-r1)
7.5.2 Caudal Hindbrain (r2-r8)
7.6 Spinal Cord
Acknowledgments
References
Relevant Website
8 - The Brains of Reptiles and Birds
8.1 The Phylogeny of Reptiles and Birds
8.2 Reptilian and Avian Brains in Numbers
8.2.1 Brain Size and Cognition: A Difficult Relation
8.2.2 Brain Sizes in Reptilian and Avian Species
8.2.3 Neuron Numbers and Scaling Rules
8.3 The Structures of the Reptilian and the Avian Brain
8.3.1 The Sauropsid Spinal Cord
8.3.1.1 Reptilian and Avian Spinal Cords: Invariant Organization Despite Variances of Behavior
8.3.1.2 The Mystery and the Sobering Reality of the Sacral Brain.
8.3.2 Mesencephalon
8.3.2.1 The Infrared System of Snakes: Seeing the Heat
8.3.2.2 The Centrifugal Visual System: What the Brain Tells the Eye
8.3.2.2.1 The Centrifugal Visual System of Reptiles
8.3.2.2.2 The Centrifugal Visual System of Birds
8.3.2.3 Projections of the Optic Tectum: From Retinotopy to Functionotopy
8.3.3 Telencephalon
8.3.3.1 The Sauropsid Basal Ganglia
8.3.3.2 The Reptilian Pallium
8.3.3.2.1 The Reptilian Dorsal Cortex
8.3.3.2.2 The Reptilian Dorsal Ventricular Ridge
8.3.3.3 The Small World of the Avian Pallium
8.3.3.3.1 The Avian Wulst
8.3.3.3.2 The Avian Dorsal Ventricular Ridge
8.3.3.3.2.1 The Avian Premotor Arcopallium and the Pallial Amygdala
8.3.3.3.2.2 The Arcopallium as a Premotor Center of the Avian Dorsal Ventricular Ridge
8.3.3.3.2.2.1 The Avian Pallial Amygdala
8.3.3.3.2.3 Layers in a Nonlaminated Forebrain
8.3.3.3.2.4 The Avian "Prefrontal Cortex"
8.4 Functional Systems
8.4.1 Ascending Visual Systems
8.4.1.1 The Thalamofugal Visual Pathway in Reptiles and Birds
8.4.1.2 The Tectofugal Visual Pathway in Birds and Reptiles
8.4.2 Ascending Somatosensory Systems
8.4.3 The Olfactory System
8.4.3.1 The Olfactory System of Birds
8.4.3.2 The Olfactory System of Reptiles
8.4.4 Ascending Auditory Systems
8.4.5 The Avian Song System
8.5 Conclusion
References
9 - Function and Evolution of the Reptilian Cerebral Cortex
9.1 Introduction
9.1.1 Reptile Phylogeny
9.1.2 What Is the Cerebral Cortex?
9.1.2.1 Pallium Versus Cortex
9.1.2.2 Pallial Subdivisions
9.1.2.3 Some Essential Features of the Cerebral Cortex
9.1.2.3.1 Reptilian Cortex
9.1.3 Functional Architecture of Sensory Pathways to the Pallium in Reptiles
9.1.4 "Model Species" and the Need for Experimental Diversity
9.2 Cell Types in Reptilian Cortex.
9.2.1 Retinal Cell Types in Turtles, Ex Vivo Preparations of Nervous System in Reptiles
9.2.2 Cell Types in the Cerebral Cortex, With a Focus on Interneurons
9.2.3 Some Limitations of Cell Classification
9.3 Comparing Brain Areas and Cell Types Across Species
9.3.1 Theories of Cortical Evolution and Their Predictions
9.3.2 Conclusions: Simplicity, Evolution, and Function of the Reptilian Cortex
References
10 - The Cerebellum of Nonmammalian Vertebrates
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Gross Morphology of the Cerebellum
10.2.1 Agnathans
10.2.2 Cartilaginous Fishes
10.2.3 Amphibians and Nonavian Reptiles
10.2.4 Birds
10.2.5 Lobed-Finned Fishes
10.2.6 Ray-Finned Fishes
10.3 Cellular Organization of the Cerebellum
10.4 Variation in Relative Cerebellar Size and Cerebellar Foliation
10.5 Sagittal Zones of the Cerebellum
10.6 Conclusions and Future Directions
References
3 - Early Mammals and Subsequent Adaptations
11 - The Emergence of Mammals
11.1 Introduction
11.2 The Emergence of an Evolutionary View of Mammalia
11.3 The Phylogenetic System
11.4 The Ancestral Amniote
11.5 Pan-Mammalian History
11.5.1 Node 1: Synapsida
11.5.2 Node 2: Unnamed
11.5.3 Node 3: Sphenacodontia
11.5.4 Node 4: Therapsida
11.5.5 Node 5: Eutherapsida
11.5.6 Node 6: Unnamed
11.5.7 Node 7: Unnamed
11.5.8 Node 8: Eutheriodontia
11.5.9 Node 9: Cynodontia
11.5.10 Node 10: Eucynodontia
11.5.11 Node 11: Unnamed
11.5.12 Node 12: Unnamed
11.5.13 Node 13: Unnamed
11.5.14 Node 14: Mammaliamorpha
11.5.15 Node 15: Mammaliaformes
11.5.16 Node 16: Unnamed
11.5.17 Node 17: Crown Clade Mammalia
11.6 Discussion
References
12 - Mammalian Evolution: The Phylogenetics Story
12.1 Introduction
12.2 The Evolutionary Tree of Mammals
12.2.1 The Historical Perspective.
12.2.2 The Mammal Tree Today.