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Techno-Economic Challenges of Green Ammonia as an Energy Vector
Techno-Economic Challenges of Green Ammonia as an Energy Vector
Copyright
List of Contributors
About the Editors
Acknowledgements
Contents
1 - Introduction
CLIMATE CHANGE
ZERO CARBON TECHNOLOGIES
ENERGY STORAGE
HYDROGEN AND AMMONIA
AMMONIA AS AN ENERGY VECTOR
SUMMARY
REFERENCES
2 - Energy Storage Technologies: Power-to-X
INTRODUCTION
Selecting an Energy Storage Technology
Electricity storage for the grid
Transport of electricity across geographies
Chemical Characteristics of Power-to-X Options
Energy density
Safety
Efficiency
Comparing P2X Chemicals
Ammonia versus hydrogen
Large-scale storage cost
Large-scale storage cost
Transport
Transport
Using ammonia directly
Using ammonia directly
Ammonia versus methanol
Ammonia versus other P2X
Summary
REFERENCES
3 - Pathways for Green Ammonia
INTRODUCTION
DRIVERS
Economic Drivers
Revenue
Electrolyzer installed capital cost per kW
Levelized cost of electricity
Technical Drivers
Electrolyzer efficiency
Electrolyzer lifetime
Overall process efficiency
Political Drivers
CHALLENGES
General
Economic Challenges
Upfront investment costs
Existing capacity
Market uncertainty
Erosion of revenue streams due to alternative energy vectors/fuels
Technical Challenges
Political Challenges
PERSPECTIVES/PROGRESS
Japan
Government support
Importing hydrogen as ammonia - a closer look at Saudi Arabia and Australia
Industry progress in ammonia
Reproduction of roadmap
Morocco
Government support
Exporting hydrogen as ammonia
Ammonia for shipping fuel
Reproduction of roadmap
SUMMARY
REFERENCES
4 - Ammonia Production Technologies
INTRODUCTION.
BIOLOGICAL NITROGEN FIXATION
HISTORY OF SYNTHETIC AMMONIA SYNTHESIS
ELECTROLYSIS-BASED HYDROGEN PRODUCTION
BIOMASS-BASED HYDROGEN PRODUCTION
NITROGEN PURIFICATION
AMMONIA SYNTHESIS LOOP
Catalysts
Process Conditions
SCALE-DOWN AND INTERMITTENCY
COST OF ELECTROLYSIS-BASED HABER-BOSCH PROCESSES
NONCONVENTIONAL TECHNOLOGIES
Nonconventional Heterogeneous Catalysis
Absorbent-Enhanced Haber-Bosch and Adsorbent-Enhanced Haber-Bosch
Non-Thermal Plasma Technology
Electrochemical Synthesis
Photochemical Synthesis
Homogeneous Catalysis
Chemical Looping Approaches
SUMMARY
REFERENCES
5 - Storage and Distribution of Ammonia
INTRODUCTION
STORAGE OF AMMONIA
Large-Scale Storage
Retailer-Level and End-User-Level Storage
DISTRIBUTION OF AMMONIA
Transportation by Pipeline
Ocean and Barge Transportation
Rail Transportation
Truck Transportation
CORROSION DURING STORAGE AND TRANSPORTATION
CASE STUDY: FEASIBILITY STUDY FOR THE TRANSPORT OF AMMONIA IN NATURAL GAS LINES
SUMMARY
REFERENCES
6 - Use of Ammonia for Heat, Power and Propulsion
INTRODUCTION
CHALLENGES
Combustion
Emissions
Material Science
TECHNOLOGIES FOR THE PRODUCTION OF HEAT, POWER OR PROPULSION
Furnaces/Boilers
Ammonia furnaces/boilers
Internal Combustion Engines
Ammonia internal combustion engines
Ammonia blending with carbon-based fuels
Ammonia and hydrogen
Gas Turbines (Stationary and Jet Engines)
Ammonia-initial years
Stationary gas turbines
Propulsion jet engines
Fuel Cells
Ammonia in fuel cells
Proton exchange membraes fuel cells
Alkaline fuel cells
Solid oxide fuel cells
SUMMARY
REFERENCES
7 - Applications
INTRODUCTION
MARINE TRANSPORTATION (C-JOB NAVAL ARCHITECTS)
Steam Turbine
Gas Turbine
Internal Combustion Engine.
Fuel Cell
Results
Harmful emissions
Fuel slip
Comparison
Ammonia performance against conventional power generation
Conclusion
Technical feasibility ammonia power generation marine applications
Performance ammonia power generation marine applications
Conventional power generation comparison with ammonia power generation for marine applications
Recommendations
Internal combustion engine
Fuel cells
POWER AND PROPULSION-INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE AT STFC DEMONSTRATOR (CARDIFF UNIVERSITY)
Numerical Studies
Experimental Unit
Results
Conclusions
Recommendations
POWER AND PROPULSION-FREA GAS TURBINE (AIST)
The Base Micro-Gas Turbine
Improvement of the Base Micro-Gas Turbine Combustor
Fuel injection strategy
Rich-lean combustion strategy
Comparison of emissions from the base combustor and the two-stage rich-lean (new) combustor
Conclusions
Recommendations
ROAD TRANSPORTATION (KOREA INSTITUTE OF ENERGY RESEARCH)
Conclusions
Recommendations and Future Work
SUMMARY
REFERENCES
APPENDIX A
System Definition ICE
APPENDIX B
System Definition PEMFC
APPENDIX C
System Definition AFC
APPENDIX D
System Definition SOFC
APPENDIX E
System Definition Conventional Option
8 - Techno-Economic Aspects of Production, Storage and Distribution of Ammonia
INTRODUCTION
TECHNO-ECONOMICS OF GREEN AMMONIA PRODUCTION
Key Components to Consider
Use of ammonia
Grid connection and VRE sources
Location
Predictability
Plant sizing
Technical and Economic Assumptions
Capital Costs
Total estimate
Electrolyzer
Electrolyzer
Ammonia synthesis
Air separation unit
Hydrogen storage
Operational Costs
TECHNO-ECONOMICS OF AMMONIA STORAGE
Small Scale Storage
Large-Scale Storage
TECHNO-ECONOMICS OF AMMONIA DISTRIBUTION.
Pipeline
Rail and Truck
Shipping
CASE STUDY - DISTRIBUTION REQUIREMENTS TO SUPPLY THE DEMANDS OF A FLEET OF THIRTY-SIX ULTRALARGE CONTAINER VESSELS
REFERENCES
9 - Techno-Economic Aspects of the Use of Ammonia as Energy Vector
INTRODUCTION
Stationary Power
Gas turbines
Coal Co-firing
Fuel cells
Transport
Maritime
Case study on an ultra-large container vessel
Case study on an ultra-large container vessel
Operational measures to improve economic competitiveness
Operational measures to improve economic competitiveness
Other costs
Other costs
Transitional solution
Transitional solution
Land transport
Industrial Heat
Summary
REFERENCES
10 - Safety Aspects
INTRODUCTION
ANHYDROUS AMMONIA
CORROSION
DISTRIBUTION AND STORAGE - RISKS
FERTILIZER, REFRIGERANT AND CHEMICALS - RISKS
FUEL - RISKS
NITROGEN OXIDES AND DERIVATIVES
FURTHER PRECAUTIONS
CASE STUDIES
A UK Safety Approach to Ammonia Use. Hazardous Area Classification, a Comparison of NH3 with H2
Fuel property comparison
Hazardous area classification
Maintaining current supply pipe pressures
Required ventilation increase to maintain Zone 2 NE (indoors)
Conclusions
Health and Safety Effects of Ammonia in a Maritime Context
Hazards to proximate persons
Hazards posed by ammonia to the marine environment
Safety record of maritime ammonia transport
Prospects for health and safety progress in the maritime context
Conclusion
Other Case Studies in the Literature
SUMMARY
REFERENCES
11 - Regulatory Framework
INTRODUCTION
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA APPROACH
Occupational Safety and Health
Storage and handling of anhydrous ammonia (Standard no. 1910.111) [3]
Process safety management of highly hazardous chemicals (Standard no. 1910.119) [4].
Air contaminants (Standard no. 1910.1000) [5]
Hazard communication (Standard no. 1910.1200)
American Standards
Requirements for the Storage and Handling of Anhydrous Ammonia (ANSI/CGA G-2.1-2014) [12]
Distribution pipelines (ASME B31.4 and B31.3) [13,14]
Transportation (49 CFR Parts 171-180)
Control and Prevention of Terrorism [17]
Environmental Protection
EUROPEAN UNION APPROACH
Health and Safety
SEVESO III (2012/18/EU) [25]
European Agency for Safety and Health at Work Directive 2000/39/EC - Indicative Occupational [27].
Explosive atmospheres
Dangerous Substances and Explosive Atmospheres Regulations (DSEAR) 2002, no 2776
European Standards
Transportation
Directive 2008/68/EC-Inland transport of dangerous goods [37]
International carriage of dangerous goods by road (ADR) [38]
Inland waterways (ADN) [40] and marine transport (IMDG) [41]
Classification, Labelling and Packaging of Substances and Mixtures (Regulation [EC] No 1272/2008) [44]
EFMA design codes for ammonia storage [45]
Environment
Directive 2008/1/EC concerning integrated pollution, prevention and control [46]
Registration, Evaluation, Authorisation and Restriction of Chemicals [REACH] (Regulation [EC] No. 1907/2006) [47].
Gothenburg protocol
Other regulations
CHINESE APPROACH
Licensing and Registration of Ammonia Usage
Handling and Storage Safety
Chinese Standards
Cold store standards
Environmental Regulation and Standards
SUMMARY
REFERENCES
12. Beyond the Technology: Public Perception of Ammonia Energy Technologies
Introduction
Social Acceptance of Renewable Energies
Role of Public Perception in the Advancement of Hydrogenated Vectors
Current Public Perception of Ammonia (Chemical or Fertilizer)
Recent Findings on Public Perception of Ammonia as Fuel.
Public Perception of Ammonia as a Fuel: A Case Study - Mexico.
Techno-Economic Challenges of Green Ammonia as an Energy Vector
Techno-Economic Challenges of Green Ammonia as an Energy Vector
Copyright
List of Contributors
About the Editors
Acknowledgements
Contents
1 - Introduction
CLIMATE CHANGE
ZERO CARBON TECHNOLOGIES
ENERGY STORAGE
HYDROGEN AND AMMONIA
AMMONIA AS AN ENERGY VECTOR
SUMMARY
REFERENCES
2 - Energy Storage Technologies: Power-to-X
INTRODUCTION
Selecting an Energy Storage Technology
Electricity storage for the grid
Transport of electricity across geographies
Chemical Characteristics of Power-to-X Options
Energy density
Safety
Efficiency
Comparing P2X Chemicals
Ammonia versus hydrogen
Large-scale storage cost
Large-scale storage cost
Transport
Transport
Using ammonia directly
Using ammonia directly
Ammonia versus methanol
Ammonia versus other P2X
Summary
REFERENCES
3 - Pathways for Green Ammonia
INTRODUCTION
DRIVERS
Economic Drivers
Revenue
Electrolyzer installed capital cost per kW
Levelized cost of electricity
Technical Drivers
Electrolyzer efficiency
Electrolyzer lifetime
Overall process efficiency
Political Drivers
CHALLENGES
General
Economic Challenges
Upfront investment costs
Existing capacity
Market uncertainty
Erosion of revenue streams due to alternative energy vectors/fuels
Technical Challenges
Political Challenges
PERSPECTIVES/PROGRESS
Japan
Government support
Importing hydrogen as ammonia - a closer look at Saudi Arabia and Australia
Industry progress in ammonia
Reproduction of roadmap
Morocco
Government support
Exporting hydrogen as ammonia
Ammonia for shipping fuel
Reproduction of roadmap
SUMMARY
REFERENCES
4 - Ammonia Production Technologies
INTRODUCTION.
BIOLOGICAL NITROGEN FIXATION
HISTORY OF SYNTHETIC AMMONIA SYNTHESIS
ELECTROLYSIS-BASED HYDROGEN PRODUCTION
BIOMASS-BASED HYDROGEN PRODUCTION
NITROGEN PURIFICATION
AMMONIA SYNTHESIS LOOP
Catalysts
Process Conditions
SCALE-DOWN AND INTERMITTENCY
COST OF ELECTROLYSIS-BASED HABER-BOSCH PROCESSES
NONCONVENTIONAL TECHNOLOGIES
Nonconventional Heterogeneous Catalysis
Absorbent-Enhanced Haber-Bosch and Adsorbent-Enhanced Haber-Bosch
Non-Thermal Plasma Technology
Electrochemical Synthesis
Photochemical Synthesis
Homogeneous Catalysis
Chemical Looping Approaches
SUMMARY
REFERENCES
5 - Storage and Distribution of Ammonia
INTRODUCTION
STORAGE OF AMMONIA
Large-Scale Storage
Retailer-Level and End-User-Level Storage
DISTRIBUTION OF AMMONIA
Transportation by Pipeline
Ocean and Barge Transportation
Rail Transportation
Truck Transportation
CORROSION DURING STORAGE AND TRANSPORTATION
CASE STUDY: FEASIBILITY STUDY FOR THE TRANSPORT OF AMMONIA IN NATURAL GAS LINES
SUMMARY
REFERENCES
6 - Use of Ammonia for Heat, Power and Propulsion
INTRODUCTION
CHALLENGES
Combustion
Emissions
Material Science
TECHNOLOGIES FOR THE PRODUCTION OF HEAT, POWER OR PROPULSION
Furnaces/Boilers
Ammonia furnaces/boilers
Internal Combustion Engines
Ammonia internal combustion engines
Ammonia blending with carbon-based fuels
Ammonia and hydrogen
Gas Turbines (Stationary and Jet Engines)
Ammonia-initial years
Stationary gas turbines
Propulsion jet engines
Fuel Cells
Ammonia in fuel cells
Proton exchange membraes fuel cells
Alkaline fuel cells
Solid oxide fuel cells
SUMMARY
REFERENCES
7 - Applications
INTRODUCTION
MARINE TRANSPORTATION (C-JOB NAVAL ARCHITECTS)
Steam Turbine
Gas Turbine
Internal Combustion Engine.
Fuel Cell
Results
Harmful emissions
Fuel slip
Comparison
Ammonia performance against conventional power generation
Conclusion
Technical feasibility ammonia power generation marine applications
Performance ammonia power generation marine applications
Conventional power generation comparison with ammonia power generation for marine applications
Recommendations
Internal combustion engine
Fuel cells
POWER AND PROPULSION-INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE AT STFC DEMONSTRATOR (CARDIFF UNIVERSITY)
Numerical Studies
Experimental Unit
Results
Conclusions
Recommendations
POWER AND PROPULSION-FREA GAS TURBINE (AIST)
The Base Micro-Gas Turbine
Improvement of the Base Micro-Gas Turbine Combustor
Fuel injection strategy
Rich-lean combustion strategy
Comparison of emissions from the base combustor and the two-stage rich-lean (new) combustor
Conclusions
Recommendations
ROAD TRANSPORTATION (KOREA INSTITUTE OF ENERGY RESEARCH)
Conclusions
Recommendations and Future Work
SUMMARY
REFERENCES
APPENDIX A
System Definition ICE
APPENDIX B
System Definition PEMFC
APPENDIX C
System Definition AFC
APPENDIX D
System Definition SOFC
APPENDIX E
System Definition Conventional Option
8 - Techno-Economic Aspects of Production, Storage and Distribution of Ammonia
INTRODUCTION
TECHNO-ECONOMICS OF GREEN AMMONIA PRODUCTION
Key Components to Consider
Use of ammonia
Grid connection and VRE sources
Location
Predictability
Plant sizing
Technical and Economic Assumptions
Capital Costs
Total estimate
Electrolyzer
Electrolyzer
Ammonia synthesis
Air separation unit
Hydrogen storage
Operational Costs
TECHNO-ECONOMICS OF AMMONIA STORAGE
Small Scale Storage
Large-Scale Storage
TECHNO-ECONOMICS OF AMMONIA DISTRIBUTION.
Pipeline
Rail and Truck
Shipping
CASE STUDY - DISTRIBUTION REQUIREMENTS TO SUPPLY THE DEMANDS OF A FLEET OF THIRTY-SIX ULTRALARGE CONTAINER VESSELS
REFERENCES
9 - Techno-Economic Aspects of the Use of Ammonia as Energy Vector
INTRODUCTION
Stationary Power
Gas turbines
Coal Co-firing
Fuel cells
Transport
Maritime
Case study on an ultra-large container vessel
Case study on an ultra-large container vessel
Operational measures to improve economic competitiveness
Operational measures to improve economic competitiveness
Other costs
Other costs
Transitional solution
Transitional solution
Land transport
Industrial Heat
Summary
REFERENCES
10 - Safety Aspects
INTRODUCTION
ANHYDROUS AMMONIA
CORROSION
DISTRIBUTION AND STORAGE - RISKS
FERTILIZER, REFRIGERANT AND CHEMICALS - RISKS
FUEL - RISKS
NITROGEN OXIDES AND DERIVATIVES
FURTHER PRECAUTIONS
CASE STUDIES
A UK Safety Approach to Ammonia Use. Hazardous Area Classification, a Comparison of NH3 with H2
Fuel property comparison
Hazardous area classification
Maintaining current supply pipe pressures
Required ventilation increase to maintain Zone 2 NE (indoors)
Conclusions
Health and Safety Effects of Ammonia in a Maritime Context
Hazards to proximate persons
Hazards posed by ammonia to the marine environment
Safety record of maritime ammonia transport
Prospects for health and safety progress in the maritime context
Conclusion
Other Case Studies in the Literature
SUMMARY
REFERENCES
11 - Regulatory Framework
INTRODUCTION
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA APPROACH
Occupational Safety and Health
Storage and handling of anhydrous ammonia (Standard no. 1910.111) [3]
Process safety management of highly hazardous chemicals (Standard no. 1910.119) [4].
Air contaminants (Standard no. 1910.1000) [5]
Hazard communication (Standard no. 1910.1200)
American Standards
Requirements for the Storage and Handling of Anhydrous Ammonia (ANSI/CGA G-2.1-2014) [12]
Distribution pipelines (ASME B31.4 and B31.3) [13,14]
Transportation (49 CFR Parts 171-180)
Control and Prevention of Terrorism [17]
Environmental Protection
EUROPEAN UNION APPROACH
Health and Safety
SEVESO III (2012/18/EU) [25]
European Agency for Safety and Health at Work Directive 2000/39/EC - Indicative Occupational [27].
Explosive atmospheres
Dangerous Substances and Explosive Atmospheres Regulations (DSEAR) 2002, no 2776
European Standards
Transportation
Directive 2008/68/EC-Inland transport of dangerous goods [37]
International carriage of dangerous goods by road (ADR) [38]
Inland waterways (ADN) [40] and marine transport (IMDG) [41]
Classification, Labelling and Packaging of Substances and Mixtures (Regulation [EC] No 1272/2008) [44]
EFMA design codes for ammonia storage [45]
Environment
Directive 2008/1/EC concerning integrated pollution, prevention and control [46]
Registration, Evaluation, Authorisation and Restriction of Chemicals [REACH] (Regulation [EC] No. 1907/2006) [47].
Gothenburg protocol
Other regulations
CHINESE APPROACH
Licensing and Registration of Ammonia Usage
Handling and Storage Safety
Chinese Standards
Cold store standards
Environmental Regulation and Standards
SUMMARY
REFERENCES
12. Beyond the Technology: Public Perception of Ammonia Energy Technologies
Introduction
Social Acceptance of Renewable Energies
Role of Public Perception in the Advancement of Hydrogenated Vectors
Current Public Perception of Ammonia (Chemical or Fertilizer)
Recent Findings on Public Perception of Ammonia as Fuel.
Public Perception of Ammonia as a Fuel: A Case Study - Mexico.