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Table of Contents
Front Cover
Advances in Thermal Energy Storage Systems
Copyright Page
Contents
List of Contributors
1 Introduction to thermal energy storage systems
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Basic thermodynamics of energy storage
1.2.1 Sensible heat storage
1.2.2 Latent heat storage
1.2.3 Thermochemical energy storage
1.2.4 Comparison of thermal energy storage types
1.3 Overview of system types
1.3.1 Sensible storage
1.3.1.1 Underground thermal energy storage
1.3.1.2 Water storage
1.3.1.3 Molten salts
1.3.2 Latent heat storage with phase change materials
1.3.3 Thermochemical storage
1.3.3.1 Heating
1.3.3.2 Cooling
1.3.3.3 Seasonal storage
1.3.3.4 Thermochemical energy storage for concentrating solar power
1.4 Environmental impact and energy savings produced
1.4.1 Refrigeration applications
1.4.2 Solar power plants
1.4.3 Mobile heat storage for industrial waste heat recovery
1.4.4 Buildings
1.4.5 Aquifer thermal energy storage in a supermarket
1.5 Conclusions
Acknowledgments
Acknowledgments 1st edition
Acknowledgments 2nd edition
References
One. Sensible heat storage systems
2 Advances in thermal energy storage systems: methods and applications
2.1 Introduction
2.1.1 Principles of sensible heat storage systems involving water
2.1.2 Advances in the use of water for heat storage
2.1.2.1 Hot water stores for solar domestic hot water systems
2.1.2.2 Hot water stores for solar heating systems for space heating and domestic hot water supply
2.1.3 Future trends
2.1.4 Sources of further information and advice
References
3 Advances in molten salt storage systems using other liquid sensible storage media for heat storage
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Principles of heat storage systems using molten salts and other liquid sensible storage media.
3.2.1 Thermal storage media used for large scale
3.2.2 Direct heating with molten salt
3.2.3 Two-tank indirect storage system
3.3 Advances in molten salt storage
3.3.1 Low melting-point formulations
3.3.2 Heat capacity improvements
3.3.3 Progress in thermal stability enhancement
3.4 Advanced concepts for other liquid-media based systems
3.4.1 Liquid metals and alloys
3.4.1.1 Alkali metals
3.4.1.2 Heavy metals
3.4.1.3 Fusible metals
3.4.2 Ionic liquids
3.5 Molten salts for advanced solar thermal energy power
3.5.1 Carbonate molten salts
3.5.2 Chloride molten salts
3.6 Additional future trends
References
Sources of further information and advice
4 Using concrete and other solid storage media in thermal energy storage systems
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Principles of heat storage in solid media
4.2.1 Materials
4.2.2 Storage configurations
4.3 State-of-the-art regenerator-type storage
4.4 Advances in the use of solid storage media for heat storage
4.4.1 Concrete storage
4.4.1.1 Concrete storage design
4.4.2 Regenerator storage
4.4.2.1 Applications
4.4.2.2 Design aspects
4.4.3 The CellFlux concept
4.4.4 Particulate storage
References
5 The use of aquifers as thermal energy storage systems
5.1 Introduction
5.1.1 Background
5.1.2 Current status
5.2 Thermal sources
5.2.1 Cold sources
5.2.2 Hot or warm sources
5.3 Aquifer thermal energy storage
5.3.1 Thermal loads
5.3.2 Delivery system
5.3.3 Aquifer thermal energy storage store
5.3.4 Optimum systems
5.4 Thermal and geophysical aspects
5.4.1 Modeling and calculating thermal effects in aquifer thermal energy storage systems
5.4.2 Geochemical aspects
5.5 Aquifer thermal energy storage design
5.5.1 Well design
5.5.2 Well field layout
5.5.2.1 Clustering strategies.
5.5.2.2 Distance between warm and cold well
5.5.2.3 Angle with respect to regional flow
5.6 Aquifer thermal energy storage cooling only case study: Richard Stockton College of New Jersey (currently Stockton Univ...
5.6.1 Aquifer storage system
5.6.2 Cost-effectiveness
5.6.2.1 Fuel costs
5.6.2.2 Maintenance
5.6.2.3 Replacement
5.6.2.4 Avoided costs
5.6.2.5 Installation costs
5.6.2.6 Financial analysis
5.7 Aquifer thermal energy storage district heating and cooling with heat pumps case study: Eindhoven University of Technology
5.7.1 Project description
5.7.2 Environmental impacts
5.7.3 Evolution of the project
5.8 Aquifer thermal energy storage heating and cooling with deicing case study: aquifer thermal energy storage plant at Sto...
5.8.1 Aquifer thermal energy storage plant
5.8.2 Cost-effectiveness
5.9 Conclusion
Acknowledgment
References
Further reading
6 The use of borehole thermal energy storage systems
6.1 Introduction
6.1.1 Historical development
6.1.2 Specifics of borehole thermal energy storage
6.1.3 Principles of borehole thermal energy storage
6.1.4 Underground thermal conditions
6.1.5 Applications of borehole thermal energy storage
6.1.6 Environmental aspects of borehole thermal energy storage
6.2 System integration of borehole thermal energy storage
6.2.1 Energy balance (ordered annual performance curve)
6.2.2 Temperature levels
6.2.3 Borehole thermal energy storage for heating, cooling, and combined heating and cooling
6.3 Investigation and design of borehole thermal energy storage construction sites
6.3.1 Site investigation: thermal response test
6.3.2 Geometry: the arrangement of compact hexagonal or quadratic borehole heat exchangers, distance and depth of borehole.
6.3.3 Design procedure, geological and hydrogeological survey, system simulation, and numerical simulation
6.4 Construction of borehole heat exchangers and borehole thermal energy storage
6.4.1 Construction of single-U, double-U, and coaxial borehole heat exchangers
6.4.2 Drilling
6.4.3 Materials for borehole heat exchangers
6.4.4 Installation and grouting
6.4.5 Heat transfer fluid (water or water/antifreeze mixture)
6.4.6 Layout of the hydraulic circuit
6.5 Examples of borehole thermal energy storage
6.5.1 Solar district heating in Neckarsulm, Germany
6.5.2 Solar district heating at Okotoks, Canada
6.5.3 Solar district heating with hybrid storage in Attenkirchen, Germany
6.6 Conclusion and future trends
References
7 Analysis, modeling, and simulation of underground thermal energy storage systems
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Aquifer thermal energy storage system
7.2.1 Scope
7.2.2 Basic equations and modeling approach
7.3 Borehole thermal energy storage system
7.3.1 Conceptualization of borehole heat exchanger
7.3.2 Implementation of borehole heat exchangers
7.3.2.1 Analytical borehole heat exchanger solution
7.3.2.2 Numerical borehole heat exchanger solution
7.4 FEFLOW as a tool for simulating underground thermal energy storage
7.5 Applications
7.5.1 Model verification
7.5.1.1 Verification against moving line source theory
7.5.1.2 Verification against Neckarsulm experimental borehole thermal energy storage
7.5.2 Groundwater influence
7.5.2.1 Modeling
7.5.2.2 Simulation
7.5.2.3 Impact on the temperature distribution of the underground
7.5.2.4 Impact on the storage efficiency
References
Two. Latent heat stoage systems
8 Using ice and snow in thermal energy storage systems
8.1 Introduction
8.1.1 Snow and ice properties.
8.2 Principles of thermal energy storage systems using snow and ice
8.2.1 Snow storage in thermally insulated buildings
8.2.2 Snow storage in thermally insulated pits
8.2.3 Underground snow storage
8.3 Design and implementation of thermal energy storage using snow
8.4 Full-scale applications
8.4.1 The Sundsvall snow storage plant
8.4.2 The Sapporo Airport snow storage plant
8.5 Future trends
References
9 Solid-liquid phase change materials for thermal energy storage
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Principles of solid-liquid phase change materials
9.2.1 Classification of phase change materials
9.2.2 Advantages and disadvantages of organic and inorganic phase change materials
9.2.3 Shortcomings of phase change materials
9.2.3.1 Extended heat exchanger surface and addition of highly conductive materials (static method)
9.2.3.2 Dynamic phase change material system
9.3 Methods to determine physical and technical properties of phase change materials
9.3.1 Latent heat capacity measurement
9.3.2 Thermal conductivity measurement
9.3.3 Viscosity measurement
9.3.4 Density and thermal expansion measurement
9.3.5 Thermophysical properties of building materials incorporating phase change materials
9.4 Comparison of physical and technical properties of key phase change materials
9.5 Future trends
References
10 Microencapsulation of phase change materials for thermal energy storage systems
10.1 Introduction
10.1.1 Morphology of the capsules
10.2 Microencapsulation of organic phase change materials
10.2.1 Microencapsulation of phase change materials with polymer shell
10.2.1.1 Interfacial polymerization
10.2.1.2 In situ polymerization
10.2.1.3 Suspension polymerization
10.2.1.4 Coacervation-phase separation method.
10.2.1.5 Spray drying and other methods of phase change material microencapsulation.
Advances in Thermal Energy Storage Systems
Copyright Page
Contents
List of Contributors
1 Introduction to thermal energy storage systems
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Basic thermodynamics of energy storage
1.2.1 Sensible heat storage
1.2.2 Latent heat storage
1.2.3 Thermochemical energy storage
1.2.4 Comparison of thermal energy storage types
1.3 Overview of system types
1.3.1 Sensible storage
1.3.1.1 Underground thermal energy storage
1.3.1.2 Water storage
1.3.1.3 Molten salts
1.3.2 Latent heat storage with phase change materials
1.3.3 Thermochemical storage
1.3.3.1 Heating
1.3.3.2 Cooling
1.3.3.3 Seasonal storage
1.3.3.4 Thermochemical energy storage for concentrating solar power
1.4 Environmental impact and energy savings produced
1.4.1 Refrigeration applications
1.4.2 Solar power plants
1.4.3 Mobile heat storage for industrial waste heat recovery
1.4.4 Buildings
1.4.5 Aquifer thermal energy storage in a supermarket
1.5 Conclusions
Acknowledgments
Acknowledgments 1st edition
Acknowledgments 2nd edition
References
One. Sensible heat storage systems
2 Advances in thermal energy storage systems: methods and applications
2.1 Introduction
2.1.1 Principles of sensible heat storage systems involving water
2.1.2 Advances in the use of water for heat storage
2.1.2.1 Hot water stores for solar domestic hot water systems
2.1.2.2 Hot water stores for solar heating systems for space heating and domestic hot water supply
2.1.3 Future trends
2.1.4 Sources of further information and advice
References
3 Advances in molten salt storage systems using other liquid sensible storage media for heat storage
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Principles of heat storage systems using molten salts and other liquid sensible storage media.
3.2.1 Thermal storage media used for large scale
3.2.2 Direct heating with molten salt
3.2.3 Two-tank indirect storage system
3.3 Advances in molten salt storage
3.3.1 Low melting-point formulations
3.3.2 Heat capacity improvements
3.3.3 Progress in thermal stability enhancement
3.4 Advanced concepts for other liquid-media based systems
3.4.1 Liquid metals and alloys
3.4.1.1 Alkali metals
3.4.1.2 Heavy metals
3.4.1.3 Fusible metals
3.4.2 Ionic liquids
3.5 Molten salts for advanced solar thermal energy power
3.5.1 Carbonate molten salts
3.5.2 Chloride molten salts
3.6 Additional future trends
References
Sources of further information and advice
4 Using concrete and other solid storage media in thermal energy storage systems
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Principles of heat storage in solid media
4.2.1 Materials
4.2.2 Storage configurations
4.3 State-of-the-art regenerator-type storage
4.4 Advances in the use of solid storage media for heat storage
4.4.1 Concrete storage
4.4.1.1 Concrete storage design
4.4.2 Regenerator storage
4.4.2.1 Applications
4.4.2.2 Design aspects
4.4.3 The CellFlux concept
4.4.4 Particulate storage
References
5 The use of aquifers as thermal energy storage systems
5.1 Introduction
5.1.1 Background
5.1.2 Current status
5.2 Thermal sources
5.2.1 Cold sources
5.2.2 Hot or warm sources
5.3 Aquifer thermal energy storage
5.3.1 Thermal loads
5.3.2 Delivery system
5.3.3 Aquifer thermal energy storage store
5.3.4 Optimum systems
5.4 Thermal and geophysical aspects
5.4.1 Modeling and calculating thermal effects in aquifer thermal energy storage systems
5.4.2 Geochemical aspects
5.5 Aquifer thermal energy storage design
5.5.1 Well design
5.5.2 Well field layout
5.5.2.1 Clustering strategies.
5.5.2.2 Distance between warm and cold well
5.5.2.3 Angle with respect to regional flow
5.6 Aquifer thermal energy storage cooling only case study: Richard Stockton College of New Jersey (currently Stockton Univ...
5.6.1 Aquifer storage system
5.6.2 Cost-effectiveness
5.6.2.1 Fuel costs
5.6.2.2 Maintenance
5.6.2.3 Replacement
5.6.2.4 Avoided costs
5.6.2.5 Installation costs
5.6.2.6 Financial analysis
5.7 Aquifer thermal energy storage district heating and cooling with heat pumps case study: Eindhoven University of Technology
5.7.1 Project description
5.7.2 Environmental impacts
5.7.3 Evolution of the project
5.8 Aquifer thermal energy storage heating and cooling with deicing case study: aquifer thermal energy storage plant at Sto...
5.8.1 Aquifer thermal energy storage plant
5.8.2 Cost-effectiveness
5.9 Conclusion
Acknowledgment
References
Further reading
6 The use of borehole thermal energy storage systems
6.1 Introduction
6.1.1 Historical development
6.1.2 Specifics of borehole thermal energy storage
6.1.3 Principles of borehole thermal energy storage
6.1.4 Underground thermal conditions
6.1.5 Applications of borehole thermal energy storage
6.1.6 Environmental aspects of borehole thermal energy storage
6.2 System integration of borehole thermal energy storage
6.2.1 Energy balance (ordered annual performance curve)
6.2.2 Temperature levels
6.2.3 Borehole thermal energy storage for heating, cooling, and combined heating and cooling
6.3 Investigation and design of borehole thermal energy storage construction sites
6.3.1 Site investigation: thermal response test
6.3.2 Geometry: the arrangement of compact hexagonal or quadratic borehole heat exchangers, distance and depth of borehole.
6.3.3 Design procedure, geological and hydrogeological survey, system simulation, and numerical simulation
6.4 Construction of borehole heat exchangers and borehole thermal energy storage
6.4.1 Construction of single-U, double-U, and coaxial borehole heat exchangers
6.4.2 Drilling
6.4.3 Materials for borehole heat exchangers
6.4.4 Installation and grouting
6.4.5 Heat transfer fluid (water or water/antifreeze mixture)
6.4.6 Layout of the hydraulic circuit
6.5 Examples of borehole thermal energy storage
6.5.1 Solar district heating in Neckarsulm, Germany
6.5.2 Solar district heating at Okotoks, Canada
6.5.3 Solar district heating with hybrid storage in Attenkirchen, Germany
6.6 Conclusion and future trends
References
7 Analysis, modeling, and simulation of underground thermal energy storage systems
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Aquifer thermal energy storage system
7.2.1 Scope
7.2.2 Basic equations and modeling approach
7.3 Borehole thermal energy storage system
7.3.1 Conceptualization of borehole heat exchanger
7.3.2 Implementation of borehole heat exchangers
7.3.2.1 Analytical borehole heat exchanger solution
7.3.2.2 Numerical borehole heat exchanger solution
7.4 FEFLOW as a tool for simulating underground thermal energy storage
7.5 Applications
7.5.1 Model verification
7.5.1.1 Verification against moving line source theory
7.5.1.2 Verification against Neckarsulm experimental borehole thermal energy storage
7.5.2 Groundwater influence
7.5.2.1 Modeling
7.5.2.2 Simulation
7.5.2.3 Impact on the temperature distribution of the underground
7.5.2.4 Impact on the storage efficiency
References
Two. Latent heat stoage systems
8 Using ice and snow in thermal energy storage systems
8.1 Introduction
8.1.1 Snow and ice properties.
8.2 Principles of thermal energy storage systems using snow and ice
8.2.1 Snow storage in thermally insulated buildings
8.2.2 Snow storage in thermally insulated pits
8.2.3 Underground snow storage
8.3 Design and implementation of thermal energy storage using snow
8.4 Full-scale applications
8.4.1 The Sundsvall snow storage plant
8.4.2 The Sapporo Airport snow storage plant
8.5 Future trends
References
9 Solid-liquid phase change materials for thermal energy storage
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Principles of solid-liquid phase change materials
9.2.1 Classification of phase change materials
9.2.2 Advantages and disadvantages of organic and inorganic phase change materials
9.2.3 Shortcomings of phase change materials
9.2.3.1 Extended heat exchanger surface and addition of highly conductive materials (static method)
9.2.3.2 Dynamic phase change material system
9.3 Methods to determine physical and technical properties of phase change materials
9.3.1 Latent heat capacity measurement
9.3.2 Thermal conductivity measurement
9.3.3 Viscosity measurement
9.3.4 Density and thermal expansion measurement
9.3.5 Thermophysical properties of building materials incorporating phase change materials
9.4 Comparison of physical and technical properties of key phase change materials
9.5 Future trends
References
10 Microencapsulation of phase change materials for thermal energy storage systems
10.1 Introduction
10.1.1 Morphology of the capsules
10.2 Microencapsulation of organic phase change materials
10.2.1 Microencapsulation of phase change materials with polymer shell
10.2.1.1 Interfacial polymerization
10.2.1.2 In situ polymerization
10.2.1.3 Suspension polymerization
10.2.1.4 Coacervation-phase separation method.
10.2.1.5 Spray drying and other methods of phase change material microencapsulation.