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Table of Contents
Intro
Handbook of Hydrocolloids
Copyright
Dedication
Contents
Contributors
Preface
Part I: Hydrocolloid characteristics and functionality
Chapter 1: Introduction to food hydrocolloids
1.1. Introduction
1.2. Functional properties
1.2.1. Thickening properties
1.2.2. Viscoelasticity and gelation
1.2.3. Synergistic combinations
1.2.4. Emulsification properties
1.3. Hydrocolloid fibers
1.4. Regulatory aspects
1.5. Future trends
Further reading
Chapter 2: Techniques for the chemical and physicochemical characterization of polysaccharides
2.1. Introduction
2.2. Polysaccharide extraction
2.2.1. Identifying the objective of the extraction protocol
2.2.2. Generalized extraction methodology
2.3. Polysaccharide analysis
2.3.1. Total sugar determination
2.3.2. Total uronic acid determination
2.3.3. Ferulic acid determination
2.3.4. Determination of degrees of esterification
2.3.4.1. Determination of the degree of methyl esterification by titration
2.3.4.2. Determination of the degree of methyl-esterification by FT-IR
2.3.4.3. Determination of acetyl content and degree of acetyl-esterification
2.3.5. Neutral sugar analysis
2.3.6. Linkage analysis
2.3.7. Dietary fiber analysis
2.4. Polysaccharide spectroscopy
2.4.1. Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR)
2.4.2. Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy
2.4.2.1. One-dimensional NMR methods (1H and 13C NMR)
2.4.2.2. Two-dimensional NMR methods
2.5. Macromolecular characterization of polysaccharides
2.5.1. Molecular weight
2.5.2. Intrinsic viscosity
2.5.3. Other techniques for conformational analysis
2.6. Polysaccharide rheology
2.6.1. Steady shear and large deformation measurements
2.6.2. Small-deformation measurements.
2.7. Interfacial properties of polysaccharides
2.7.1. Interfacially active polysaccharides
2.7.2. Interfacial analysis
References
Chapter 3: The health aspects of hydrocolloids
3.1. Introduction
3.2. Impact on food structure, interactions with food matrix, and reduced digestion and absorption
3.3. Colonic function
3.3.1. Impact of hydrocolloid carbohydrates on SCFA production
3.3.2. The gut microbiome
3.3.3. Impact of hydrocolloid carbohydrates on SCFA production
3.4. Dietary fiber in children
3.4.1. Effect of dietary fiber on mineral bioavailability
References
Chapter 4: Oral tribology of polysaccharides
4.1. Introduction
4.2. Stribeck curve
4.3. Devices for measuring oral tribology
4.3.1. Mini-traction machine
4.3.2. Tribo-rheo cell attachments
4.3.3. Custom-made tribometers
4.4. Oral tribology of polysaccharides
4.4.1. Tribology of starch
4.4.2. Tribology of nonstarch polysaccharides
4.5. Conclusions and future recommendations
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 5: Mixed hydrocolloid systems
5.1. Introduction
5.2. Interactions and phase behavior of mixed hydrocolloid systems
5.2.1. Interactions and thermodynamics
5.2.2. Segregative phase separation
5.2.3. Associative phase separation
5.2.4. Phase separation mechanisms
5.2.5. Complexed phase behavior
5.2.5.1. Coexistence of different phase separations
5.2.5.2. Viscoelastic phase separation
5.2.5.3. Phase separation in confined geometry
5.2.5.4. Phase separation coupled with external shear filed
5.3. Synergistic and antagonistic effects of mixed hydrocolloid systems
5.3.1. Synergistic effect via molecular association
5.3.1.1. Xanthan-based synergistic gels
5.3.1.2. κ-Carrageenan- and gellan-based synergistic gels
5.3.2. Synergistic effect via interpenetrating network.
5.4. Applications of mixed hydrocolloid systems
5.4.1. Fractionation and purification
5.4.2. Microstructure design
5.4.3. Thickening and gelation
5.4.4. Emulsification and foaming
5.4.5. Encapsulation
5.4.6. Film formation
5.5. Conclusions
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 6: Hydrocolloids for the encapsulation and delivery of active compounds
6.1. Introduction
6.2. Ingredients and fabrication methods
6.2.1. Modification of hydrocolloids
6.2.1.1. Physical modifications
6.2.1.2. Chemical modifications
6.2.1.3. Enzymatic modifications
6.2.2. Formation of hydrocolloid-based delivery systems
6.2.2.1. Biopolymer nanoparticles
6.2.2.2. Emulsion-based systems
Conventional emulsions and nanoemulsions
Solid lipid nanoparticles
Double emulsions
Multilayered emulsions
Pickering emulsions
6.2.2.3. Microgels
Injection method
Template method
Phase separation method
6.3. Applications of hydrocolloid-based delivery systems
6.4. Outlook and conclusions of hydrocolloids-based delivery systems
References
Chapter 7: Hydrocolloids for edible films, coatings, and food packaging
7.1. Introduction
7.2. Film-application stages
7.3. Methods for testing films
7.4. Parameters to be considered before, during, and after food coating
7.5. Todays edible protective films
7.5.1. Edible packaging materials-A general approach
7.5.2. Inclusion of food additives in edible films
7.5.3. Meat, seafood, and fish coatings
7.5.4. Edible coatings for fruit and vegetables
7.5.5. Coatings for fried products as oil resisters
7.5.6. Miscellaneous applications
7.6. Novel products
7.7. Market estimates for edible films
7.8. Future directions in research and development
References
Part II: Plant polysaccharides
Chapter 8: Starch
8.1. Introduction.
8.2. Starch composition and structure
8.2.1. Starch granules
8.2.1.1. Composition of starch
8.2.1.2. Commercial native starches
8.2.2. Water and starches
8.2.2.1. Native starches and water
8.2.2.2. Hydrothermal treatments of starches
8.2.2.3. Starch hydration and melting with limited water
8.3. Storage of processed starch
8.3.1. Storage at moderate moisture contents: Retrogradation
8.3.2. Drying and dried starchy products
8.4. Choice of starch and modification
8.4.1. Clean label starches
8.4.2. Chemical modification of starch
8.5. Starch and health
8.6. Starch hydrocolloid blends
8.6.1. Bacterial cellulose and starch
8.6.2. Xanthan gum and starch
8.7. Conclusions
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 9: Galactomannans*
9.1. Introduction
9.2. Galactomannan plant sources and seed components
9.2.1. Locust bean gum
9.2.2. Guar gum
9.2.3. Production of guar splits and guar gum powder
9.2.4. Production of fenugreek gum
9.2.5. Mucuna flagellipes gum
9.2.6. Brachystegia eurycoma gum
9.2.7. Delonix regia gum
9.2.8. Prosopis africana gum
9.3. Extraction
9.4. Structure and physicochemical properties of galactomannans
9.5. Rheology
9.6. Modification and applications of galactomannans
9.7. Regulatory status
9.8. Future trends
References
Chapter 10: Commercial pectins
10.1. Introduction
10.2. Legal status and declaration
10.3. Industrial extraction of functional pectins
10.4. Conventional and alternative sources
10.5. Properties and application fields of commercial pectins
10.5.1. General gelation mechanism
10.6. Food applications
10.6.1. High sugar jams, jellies, marmalades, and preserves
10.6.2. Low sugar jams and jellies
10.6.3. Bakery products
10.6.4. Dairy products
References
Chapter 11: Xyloglucan.
11.1. Introduction
11.2. Origin, distribution, and preparation
11.3. Structure and fundamental properties
11.3.1. Chemical structure
11.3.2. Molecular weight
11.3.3. Dilute solution properties
11.3.4. Molecular mobility in aqueous solution
11.3.5. Single molecular imaging
11.3.6. Rheological properties at higher concentrations
11.4. Interactions with TSX
11.4.1. Gelation by solubility change
11.4.2. Gelation by addition of polyphenols
11.4.3. Gelation of TSX by mixing with helix forming polysaccharides
11.4.4. Interaction of XG with other small molecules
11.5. Applications in the food industry
11.5.1. Thickener or stabilizer
11.5.2. Emulsion stabilizer
11.5.3. Ice crystal stabilization
11.5.4. Gelling agent
11.5.5. Starch modification
11.5.6. Baking
11.5.7. Fat replacement
11.5.8. Application of low-viscosity tamarind seed gum
11.6. Physiological effects of xyloglucan
11.6.1. Effects in the intestinal tract
11.6.1.1. Effects on lipid absorption
11.6.1.2. Effects on carbohydrate absorption
11.6.1.3. Intestine bacterial metabolism
11.6.2. Mucin-like effects
11.6.2.1. Alleviation of gastrointestinal failure
11.6.2.2. Mitigation of nasal-related symptoms
11.6.2.3. Amelioration of ophthalmologic symptoms
11.6.3. Other topics in biomedical function
11.6.3.1. Biological defense action
11.6.3.2. Use for wound treatment
11.6.3.3. Drug delivery system
11.7. Regulatory status in the food industry
11.7.1. Regulatory status
11.7.2. Safety data
11.7.3. Assay method
References
Chapter 12: Cereal β-glucans
12.1. Introduction
12.2. New cereal -glucan sources
12.3. Biosynthesis
12.4. Molecular structure of existing cereal β-glucan sources
12.5. Innovations in cereal -glucan extraction technology.
12.6. New cereal -glucan formulations in food applications.
Handbook of Hydrocolloids
Copyright
Dedication
Contents
Contributors
Preface
Part I: Hydrocolloid characteristics and functionality
Chapter 1: Introduction to food hydrocolloids
1.1. Introduction
1.2. Functional properties
1.2.1. Thickening properties
1.2.2. Viscoelasticity and gelation
1.2.3. Synergistic combinations
1.2.4. Emulsification properties
1.3. Hydrocolloid fibers
1.4. Regulatory aspects
1.5. Future trends
Further reading
Chapter 2: Techniques for the chemical and physicochemical characterization of polysaccharides
2.1. Introduction
2.2. Polysaccharide extraction
2.2.1. Identifying the objective of the extraction protocol
2.2.2. Generalized extraction methodology
2.3. Polysaccharide analysis
2.3.1. Total sugar determination
2.3.2. Total uronic acid determination
2.3.3. Ferulic acid determination
2.3.4. Determination of degrees of esterification
2.3.4.1. Determination of the degree of methyl esterification by titration
2.3.4.2. Determination of the degree of methyl-esterification by FT-IR
2.3.4.3. Determination of acetyl content and degree of acetyl-esterification
2.3.5. Neutral sugar analysis
2.3.6. Linkage analysis
2.3.7. Dietary fiber analysis
2.4. Polysaccharide spectroscopy
2.4.1. Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR)
2.4.2. Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy
2.4.2.1. One-dimensional NMR methods (1H and 13C NMR)
2.4.2.2. Two-dimensional NMR methods
2.5. Macromolecular characterization of polysaccharides
2.5.1. Molecular weight
2.5.2. Intrinsic viscosity
2.5.3. Other techniques for conformational analysis
2.6. Polysaccharide rheology
2.6.1. Steady shear and large deformation measurements
2.6.2. Small-deformation measurements.
2.7. Interfacial properties of polysaccharides
2.7.1. Interfacially active polysaccharides
2.7.2. Interfacial analysis
References
Chapter 3: The health aspects of hydrocolloids
3.1. Introduction
3.2. Impact on food structure, interactions with food matrix, and reduced digestion and absorption
3.3. Colonic function
3.3.1. Impact of hydrocolloid carbohydrates on SCFA production
3.3.2. The gut microbiome
3.3.3. Impact of hydrocolloid carbohydrates on SCFA production
3.4. Dietary fiber in children
3.4.1. Effect of dietary fiber on mineral bioavailability
References
Chapter 4: Oral tribology of polysaccharides
4.1. Introduction
4.2. Stribeck curve
4.3. Devices for measuring oral tribology
4.3.1. Mini-traction machine
4.3.2. Tribo-rheo cell attachments
4.3.3. Custom-made tribometers
4.4. Oral tribology of polysaccharides
4.4.1. Tribology of starch
4.4.2. Tribology of nonstarch polysaccharides
4.5. Conclusions and future recommendations
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 5: Mixed hydrocolloid systems
5.1. Introduction
5.2. Interactions and phase behavior of mixed hydrocolloid systems
5.2.1. Interactions and thermodynamics
5.2.2. Segregative phase separation
5.2.3. Associative phase separation
5.2.4. Phase separation mechanisms
5.2.5. Complexed phase behavior
5.2.5.1. Coexistence of different phase separations
5.2.5.2. Viscoelastic phase separation
5.2.5.3. Phase separation in confined geometry
5.2.5.4. Phase separation coupled with external shear filed
5.3. Synergistic and antagonistic effects of mixed hydrocolloid systems
5.3.1. Synergistic effect via molecular association
5.3.1.1. Xanthan-based synergistic gels
5.3.1.2. κ-Carrageenan- and gellan-based synergistic gels
5.3.2. Synergistic effect via interpenetrating network.
5.4. Applications of mixed hydrocolloid systems
5.4.1. Fractionation and purification
5.4.2. Microstructure design
5.4.3. Thickening and gelation
5.4.4. Emulsification and foaming
5.4.5. Encapsulation
5.4.6. Film formation
5.5. Conclusions
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 6: Hydrocolloids for the encapsulation and delivery of active compounds
6.1. Introduction
6.2. Ingredients and fabrication methods
6.2.1. Modification of hydrocolloids
6.2.1.1. Physical modifications
6.2.1.2. Chemical modifications
6.2.1.3. Enzymatic modifications
6.2.2. Formation of hydrocolloid-based delivery systems
6.2.2.1. Biopolymer nanoparticles
6.2.2.2. Emulsion-based systems
Conventional emulsions and nanoemulsions
Solid lipid nanoparticles
Double emulsions
Multilayered emulsions
Pickering emulsions
6.2.2.3. Microgels
Injection method
Template method
Phase separation method
6.3. Applications of hydrocolloid-based delivery systems
6.4. Outlook and conclusions of hydrocolloids-based delivery systems
References
Chapter 7: Hydrocolloids for edible films, coatings, and food packaging
7.1. Introduction
7.2. Film-application stages
7.3. Methods for testing films
7.4. Parameters to be considered before, during, and after food coating
7.5. Todays edible protective films
7.5.1. Edible packaging materials-A general approach
7.5.2. Inclusion of food additives in edible films
7.5.3. Meat, seafood, and fish coatings
7.5.4. Edible coatings for fruit and vegetables
7.5.5. Coatings for fried products as oil resisters
7.5.6. Miscellaneous applications
7.6. Novel products
7.7. Market estimates for edible films
7.8. Future directions in research and development
References
Part II: Plant polysaccharides
Chapter 8: Starch
8.1. Introduction.
8.2. Starch composition and structure
8.2.1. Starch granules
8.2.1.1. Composition of starch
8.2.1.2. Commercial native starches
8.2.2. Water and starches
8.2.2.1. Native starches and water
8.2.2.2. Hydrothermal treatments of starches
8.2.2.3. Starch hydration and melting with limited water
8.3. Storage of processed starch
8.3.1. Storage at moderate moisture contents: Retrogradation
8.3.2. Drying and dried starchy products
8.4. Choice of starch and modification
8.4.1. Clean label starches
8.4.2. Chemical modification of starch
8.5. Starch and health
8.6. Starch hydrocolloid blends
8.6.1. Bacterial cellulose and starch
8.6.2. Xanthan gum and starch
8.7. Conclusions
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 9: Galactomannans*
9.1. Introduction
9.2. Galactomannan plant sources and seed components
9.2.1. Locust bean gum
9.2.2. Guar gum
9.2.3. Production of guar splits and guar gum powder
9.2.4. Production of fenugreek gum
9.2.5. Mucuna flagellipes gum
9.2.6. Brachystegia eurycoma gum
9.2.7. Delonix regia gum
9.2.8. Prosopis africana gum
9.3. Extraction
9.4. Structure and physicochemical properties of galactomannans
9.5. Rheology
9.6. Modification and applications of galactomannans
9.7. Regulatory status
9.8. Future trends
References
Chapter 10: Commercial pectins
10.1. Introduction
10.2. Legal status and declaration
10.3. Industrial extraction of functional pectins
10.4. Conventional and alternative sources
10.5. Properties and application fields of commercial pectins
10.5.1. General gelation mechanism
10.6. Food applications
10.6.1. High sugar jams, jellies, marmalades, and preserves
10.6.2. Low sugar jams and jellies
10.6.3. Bakery products
10.6.4. Dairy products
References
Chapter 11: Xyloglucan.
11.1. Introduction
11.2. Origin, distribution, and preparation
11.3. Structure and fundamental properties
11.3.1. Chemical structure
11.3.2. Molecular weight
11.3.3. Dilute solution properties
11.3.4. Molecular mobility in aqueous solution
11.3.5. Single molecular imaging
11.3.6. Rheological properties at higher concentrations
11.4. Interactions with TSX
11.4.1. Gelation by solubility change
11.4.2. Gelation by addition of polyphenols
11.4.3. Gelation of TSX by mixing with helix forming polysaccharides
11.4.4. Interaction of XG with other small molecules
11.5. Applications in the food industry
11.5.1. Thickener or stabilizer
11.5.2. Emulsion stabilizer
11.5.3. Ice crystal stabilization
11.5.4. Gelling agent
11.5.5. Starch modification
11.5.6. Baking
11.5.7. Fat replacement
11.5.8. Application of low-viscosity tamarind seed gum
11.6. Physiological effects of xyloglucan
11.6.1. Effects in the intestinal tract
11.6.1.1. Effects on lipid absorption
11.6.1.2. Effects on carbohydrate absorption
11.6.1.3. Intestine bacterial metabolism
11.6.2. Mucin-like effects
11.6.2.1. Alleviation of gastrointestinal failure
11.6.2.2. Mitigation of nasal-related symptoms
11.6.2.3. Amelioration of ophthalmologic symptoms
11.6.3. Other topics in biomedical function
11.6.3.1. Biological defense action
11.6.3.2. Use for wound treatment
11.6.3.3. Drug delivery system
11.7. Regulatory status in the food industry
11.7.1. Regulatory status
11.7.2. Safety data
11.7.3. Assay method
References
Chapter 12: Cereal β-glucans
12.1. Introduction
12.2. New cereal -glucan sources
12.3. Biosynthesis
12.4. Molecular structure of existing cereal β-glucan sources
12.5. Innovations in cereal -glucan extraction technology.
12.6. New cereal -glucan formulations in food applications.