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Table of Contents
Intro
Preface
Acknowledgement
Editor&
#x02019
s biography
Habib Zaidi
List of contributors
Chapter 1 Monte Carlo techniques in nuclear medicine dosimetry
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Monte Carlo techniques in medical radiation physics
1.3 Applications of Monte Carlo techniques in quantitative imaging for radiation dosimetry
1.4 Monte Carlo techniques in nuclear medicine dosimetry
1.4.1 Calculation of absorbed fractions
1.4.2 Derivation of dose-point kernels
1.4.3 Pharmacokinetic modelling
1.5 Monte Carlo techniques in radiation protection
1.5.1 Shielding calculations
1.5.2 Characterization of detectors and radiation monitoring instruments
1.5.3 Radiation dose calculations to staff and population
1.6 Current and future applications of Monte Carlo calculations in nuclear medicine dosimetry
1.6.1 Patient-specific dosimetry and treatment planning
1.6.2 On-line PET monitoring of radiotherapy beams
References
Chapter 2 Advances in imaging for radiation therapy
2.1 SPECT
2.1.1 Large CZT SPECT
2.1.2 90Y bremsstrahlung SPECT
2.2 TOF-PET
2.2.1 Motivation
2.2.2 CTR issues in crystal-photodetector blocks
2.2.3 State-of-the-art PET instrumentation
2.2.4 90Y therapy PET imaging
2.2.5 CTR improvements: current investigations
2.2.6 Prospective: wave optics approach
2.3 Compton camera
2.3.1 Motivation
2.3.2 Principle
2.3.3 Reconstruction
2.3.4 First clinical radionuclide imaging
2.3.5 Perspectives: new radionuclides imaging
2.3.6 Perspectives: multi-coincidence Compton camera
2.4 Proton beam therapy imaging
2.4.1 Motivation
2.4.2 Compton camera
2.4.3 Acoustics waves imaging
References
Chapter 3 Basic concepts of internal radiation dosimetry
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Radiation quantities and units.
3.2.1 Stochastic versus deterministic quantities
3.2.2 Definitions of dosimetric quantities
3.3 The MIRD schema
3.4 Time-integrated activities
3.4.1 Curve-fitting and analytical integration
3.4.2 Numerical integration
3.4.3 Compartmental modeling
3.5 Radionuclide S-values
3.5.1 Reference phantoms S-values
3.5.2 Patient S-values
3.6 Radiopharmaceutical therapy: adiopharmaceutical therapy: non-uniform dose distributions
3.7 Concluding remarks
References
Chapter 4 Dose point-kernels for radionuclide dosimetry
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Methods used to generate dose point-kernels
4.2.1 Photons
4.2.2 Electrons
4.2.3 Beta emitters
4.2.4 Voxel S values
4.3 Impact of the medium
4.4 Examples of absorbed dose point-kernels available for radionuclide dosimetry
4.5 Use of dose point-kernels in absorbed dose calculations
4.5.1 Absorbed fractions on a cellular scale
4.5.2 Dosimetry on a millimetre scale
4.5.3 Organ scale dosimetry
4.6 Conclusion
References
Chapter 5 Computational models of human anatomy
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Phantom format types and morphometric categories
5.2.1 Phantom format types
5.2.2 Phantom morphometric categories
5.3 Historical developments
5.3.1 Early approaches to dose assessment
5.3.2 Need for mathematical models in internal assessment
5.3.3 Simple anatomic models of Brownell, Ellett, and Reddy
5.3.4 Early models developed by Snyder
5.3.5 The Snyder-Fisher phantom
5.3.6 The MIRD-5 Phantom
5.3.7 Photon and electron transport
5.3.8 Similitude and pediatric phantoms
5.3.9 Development of MIRDOSE codes
5.4 Stylized anatomic models
5.4.1 The ORNL phantom series
5.4.2 The MIRD stylized models
5.4.3 Stylized models of the lower abdomen
5.4.4 Updates to the ORNL and MIRD stylized human phantoms.
5.4.5 Use of stylized models in therapeutic nuclear medicine
5.5 Voxel-type anatomic models
5.5.1 Methods of construction
5.5.2 Review of representative voxel phantoms
5.5.3 ICRP adult and pediatric voxel-based reference computational phantoms (VCRPs)
5.5.4 Efforts to develop country-specific or population-specific reference phantoms
5.5.5 Comparison to stylized mathematical models
5.5.6 Use of voxel models in therapeutic nuclear medicine
5.6 Mesh-type anatomic models
5.6.1 Methods of construction
5.6.2 The NCAT and XCAT phantom series
5.6.3 The University of Florida phantom series
5.6.4 IT'IS virtual family phantom series
5.6.5 RPI phantom series
5.6.6 The ICRP publication 145 mesh-type adult reference phantoms
5.6.7 HUREL phantom series
5.6.8 The ICRP mesh-based pediatric phantoms
5.6.9 Use of mesh-based models in therapeutic nuclear medicine
5.7 Conclusions
References
Chapter 6 Radiobiology aspects and radionuclide selection criteria in cancer therapy
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Radiobiologic effects
6.2.1 Molecular lesions
6.2.2 Cellular responses
6.2.3 Tissue responses
6.2.4 Radiation quality
6.3 Targeting principles in radionuclide therapy
6.3.1 The radionuclides
6.3.2 Half-life
6.3.3 Radionuclide residence time
6.3.4 Choice of vector or ligand
6.3.5 Properties of targets
6.4 Experimental therapeutics
6.4.1 Alpha particle emitters
6.4.2 Beta particle emitters
6.4.3 Auger electron emitters
6.5 The ideal herapeutic radiopharmaceutical
References
Chapter 7 Microdosimetry of targeted radionuclides
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Alpha emitters
7.2.1 Monte Carlo simulation of energy deposition by alpha-particle emitters
7.2.2 Applications of microdosimetry to alpha-particle emitters
7.3 Auger electron emitters.
7.3.1 Monte Carlo simulation of Auger decays and their energy deposition
7.3.2 Targeted therapy with Auger electron emitters
7.4 Future directions
References
Chapter 8 Monte Carlo calculations in therapeutic nuclear medicine
8.1 Introduction
8.2 The Monte Carlo method
8.3 Recent Monte Carlo efforts in nuclear medicine
8.4 Expansion of the field
8.4.1 VIP man
8.4.2 The GSF voxel phantoms
8.4.3 RADAR anthropomorphic and animal models
8.4.4 University of Florida phantom series
8.4.5 Other realistic phantoms
8.5 Applications of the phantoms
8.6 Use of Monte Carlo methods to calculate absorbed doses in nuclear medicine therapy
References
Chapter 9 The OLINDA software package
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Advances in OLINDA v2
9.3 Implementation to develop standard dose estimates for radiopharmaceuticals
References
Chapter 10 The three-dimensional radiobioligical dosimetry software package, 3D-RD
10.1 Introduction
10.2 The historical 3D-ID package
10.3 Radiobiological motivation FR 3D-RD
10.4 3D-RD package
10.5 Applications
10.6 New and potential future uses
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 11 RAPID: radiopharmaceutical assessment platform for internal dosimetry
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Platform framework and implementation
11.3 Image acquisition
11.4 Image pre-processing
11.5 Region of interest contouring
11.6 Monte Carlo simulation
11.7 Kinetic fitting
11.8 Output visualization and analysis
11.9 Benchmarking
11.10 Spherical tumor phantom
11.11 Monoenergetic photon and electron S-values in the Zubal phantom
11.12 Spherical cellular phantom
11.13 Applications of RAPID
11.14 Small-animal dosimetry
11.15 Companion animal dosimetry
11.16 Human dosimetry
11.17 Cellular dosimetry
11.18 Conclusions
References.
Chapter 12 The VRAK software for internal radionuclide dosimetry
12.1 Scope of the task and application to clinical decision-making
12.2 Overview of voxel dose processing steps
12.3 Image co-registration
12.4 Pharmacokinetics processing
12.4.1 Handling of irregular data
12.4.2 Selection of generic uptake rate parameter (k1)
12.4.3 Activity and decays in units of concentration
12.5 Voxel radiation transport estimation
12.6 Discussion of limitations
12.6.1 Considerations of radiobiology
12.7 Conclusions
References
Chapter 13 The Raydose software for image-based dosimetry in molecular radiotherapy
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Raydose methodology and workflow
13.2.1 Input data and output data
13.2.2 Patient geometry
13.2.3 Quantitative activity images
13.2.4 Simulation and dose calculation
13.2.5 Uncertainties
13.2.6 Efficient sampling
13.3 Running Raydose
13.3.1 Graphical user interface
13.3.2 Post analysis of simulation data
13.3.3 System requirements
13.4 Case studies
13.4.1 Quantitative 90Y PET/CT-based dosimetry in liver radioembolization
13.4.2 Raydose phantom validation using 90Y
13.4.3 Quantitative 177Lu SPECT/CT-based dosimetry in peptide receptor radionuclide therapy
References
Chapter 14 The VIDA software for targeted radionuclide therapy
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Monte Carlo simulation
14.2.1 Detector geometry
14.2.2 Particles and physics
14.2.3 Primary event generation and scoring
14.3 3D kinetics processing
14.4 Validation
14.5 Application to intrathecal dosimetry
References
Chapter 15 Novel approaches for voxel-based dosimetry
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Dose kernel approaches
15.3 Direct Monte Carlo approach
15.4 Deep learning approach
15.5 Conclusions
References.
Chapter 16 The Monte Carlo method as a design tool in selective internal radiation therapy.
Preface
Acknowledgement
Editor&
#x02019
s biography
Habib Zaidi
List of contributors
Chapter 1 Monte Carlo techniques in nuclear medicine dosimetry
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Monte Carlo techniques in medical radiation physics
1.3 Applications of Monte Carlo techniques in quantitative imaging for radiation dosimetry
1.4 Monte Carlo techniques in nuclear medicine dosimetry
1.4.1 Calculation of absorbed fractions
1.4.2 Derivation of dose-point kernels
1.4.3 Pharmacokinetic modelling
1.5 Monte Carlo techniques in radiation protection
1.5.1 Shielding calculations
1.5.2 Characterization of detectors and radiation monitoring instruments
1.5.3 Radiation dose calculations to staff and population
1.6 Current and future applications of Monte Carlo calculations in nuclear medicine dosimetry
1.6.1 Patient-specific dosimetry and treatment planning
1.6.2 On-line PET monitoring of radiotherapy beams
References
Chapter 2 Advances in imaging for radiation therapy
2.1 SPECT
2.1.1 Large CZT SPECT
2.1.2 90Y bremsstrahlung SPECT
2.2 TOF-PET
2.2.1 Motivation
2.2.2 CTR issues in crystal-photodetector blocks
2.2.3 State-of-the-art PET instrumentation
2.2.4 90Y therapy PET imaging
2.2.5 CTR improvements: current investigations
2.2.6 Prospective: wave optics approach
2.3 Compton camera
2.3.1 Motivation
2.3.2 Principle
2.3.3 Reconstruction
2.3.4 First clinical radionuclide imaging
2.3.5 Perspectives: new radionuclides imaging
2.3.6 Perspectives: multi-coincidence Compton camera
2.4 Proton beam therapy imaging
2.4.1 Motivation
2.4.2 Compton camera
2.4.3 Acoustics waves imaging
References
Chapter 3 Basic concepts of internal radiation dosimetry
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Radiation quantities and units.
3.2.1 Stochastic versus deterministic quantities
3.2.2 Definitions of dosimetric quantities
3.3 The MIRD schema
3.4 Time-integrated activities
3.4.1 Curve-fitting and analytical integration
3.4.2 Numerical integration
3.4.3 Compartmental modeling
3.5 Radionuclide S-values
3.5.1 Reference phantoms S-values
3.5.2 Patient S-values
3.6 Radiopharmaceutical therapy: adiopharmaceutical therapy: non-uniform dose distributions
3.7 Concluding remarks
References
Chapter 4 Dose point-kernels for radionuclide dosimetry
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Methods used to generate dose point-kernels
4.2.1 Photons
4.2.2 Electrons
4.2.3 Beta emitters
4.2.4 Voxel S values
4.3 Impact of the medium
4.4 Examples of absorbed dose point-kernels available for radionuclide dosimetry
4.5 Use of dose point-kernels in absorbed dose calculations
4.5.1 Absorbed fractions on a cellular scale
4.5.2 Dosimetry on a millimetre scale
4.5.3 Organ scale dosimetry
4.6 Conclusion
References
Chapter 5 Computational models of human anatomy
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Phantom format types and morphometric categories
5.2.1 Phantom format types
5.2.2 Phantom morphometric categories
5.3 Historical developments
5.3.1 Early approaches to dose assessment
5.3.2 Need for mathematical models in internal assessment
5.3.3 Simple anatomic models of Brownell, Ellett, and Reddy
5.3.4 Early models developed by Snyder
5.3.5 The Snyder-Fisher phantom
5.3.6 The MIRD-5 Phantom
5.3.7 Photon and electron transport
5.3.8 Similitude and pediatric phantoms
5.3.9 Development of MIRDOSE codes
5.4 Stylized anatomic models
5.4.1 The ORNL phantom series
5.4.2 The MIRD stylized models
5.4.3 Stylized models of the lower abdomen
5.4.4 Updates to the ORNL and MIRD stylized human phantoms.
5.4.5 Use of stylized models in therapeutic nuclear medicine
5.5 Voxel-type anatomic models
5.5.1 Methods of construction
5.5.2 Review of representative voxel phantoms
5.5.3 ICRP adult and pediatric voxel-based reference computational phantoms (VCRPs)
5.5.4 Efforts to develop country-specific or population-specific reference phantoms
5.5.5 Comparison to stylized mathematical models
5.5.6 Use of voxel models in therapeutic nuclear medicine
5.6 Mesh-type anatomic models
5.6.1 Methods of construction
5.6.2 The NCAT and XCAT phantom series
5.6.3 The University of Florida phantom series
5.6.4 IT'IS virtual family phantom series
5.6.5 RPI phantom series
5.6.6 The ICRP publication 145 mesh-type adult reference phantoms
5.6.7 HUREL phantom series
5.6.8 The ICRP mesh-based pediatric phantoms
5.6.9 Use of mesh-based models in therapeutic nuclear medicine
5.7 Conclusions
References
Chapter 6 Radiobiology aspects and radionuclide selection criteria in cancer therapy
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Radiobiologic effects
6.2.1 Molecular lesions
6.2.2 Cellular responses
6.2.3 Tissue responses
6.2.4 Radiation quality
6.3 Targeting principles in radionuclide therapy
6.3.1 The radionuclides
6.3.2 Half-life
6.3.3 Radionuclide residence time
6.3.4 Choice of vector or ligand
6.3.5 Properties of targets
6.4 Experimental therapeutics
6.4.1 Alpha particle emitters
6.4.2 Beta particle emitters
6.4.3 Auger electron emitters
6.5 The ideal herapeutic radiopharmaceutical
References
Chapter 7 Microdosimetry of targeted radionuclides
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Alpha emitters
7.2.1 Monte Carlo simulation of energy deposition by alpha-particle emitters
7.2.2 Applications of microdosimetry to alpha-particle emitters
7.3 Auger electron emitters.
7.3.1 Monte Carlo simulation of Auger decays and their energy deposition
7.3.2 Targeted therapy with Auger electron emitters
7.4 Future directions
References
Chapter 8 Monte Carlo calculations in therapeutic nuclear medicine
8.1 Introduction
8.2 The Monte Carlo method
8.3 Recent Monte Carlo efforts in nuclear medicine
8.4 Expansion of the field
8.4.1 VIP man
8.4.2 The GSF voxel phantoms
8.4.3 RADAR anthropomorphic and animal models
8.4.4 University of Florida phantom series
8.4.5 Other realistic phantoms
8.5 Applications of the phantoms
8.6 Use of Monte Carlo methods to calculate absorbed doses in nuclear medicine therapy
References
Chapter 9 The OLINDA software package
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Advances in OLINDA v2
9.3 Implementation to develop standard dose estimates for radiopharmaceuticals
References
Chapter 10 The three-dimensional radiobioligical dosimetry software package, 3D-RD
10.1 Introduction
10.2 The historical 3D-ID package
10.3 Radiobiological motivation FR 3D-RD
10.4 3D-RD package
10.5 Applications
10.6 New and potential future uses
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 11 RAPID: radiopharmaceutical assessment platform for internal dosimetry
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Platform framework and implementation
11.3 Image acquisition
11.4 Image pre-processing
11.5 Region of interest contouring
11.6 Monte Carlo simulation
11.7 Kinetic fitting
11.8 Output visualization and analysis
11.9 Benchmarking
11.10 Spherical tumor phantom
11.11 Monoenergetic photon and electron S-values in the Zubal phantom
11.12 Spherical cellular phantom
11.13 Applications of RAPID
11.14 Small-animal dosimetry
11.15 Companion animal dosimetry
11.16 Human dosimetry
11.17 Cellular dosimetry
11.18 Conclusions
References.
Chapter 12 The VRAK software for internal radionuclide dosimetry
12.1 Scope of the task and application to clinical decision-making
12.2 Overview of voxel dose processing steps
12.3 Image co-registration
12.4 Pharmacokinetics processing
12.4.1 Handling of irregular data
12.4.2 Selection of generic uptake rate parameter (k1)
12.4.3 Activity and decays in units of concentration
12.5 Voxel radiation transport estimation
12.6 Discussion of limitations
12.6.1 Considerations of radiobiology
12.7 Conclusions
References
Chapter 13 The Raydose software for image-based dosimetry in molecular radiotherapy
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Raydose methodology and workflow
13.2.1 Input data and output data
13.2.2 Patient geometry
13.2.3 Quantitative activity images
13.2.4 Simulation and dose calculation
13.2.5 Uncertainties
13.2.6 Efficient sampling
13.3 Running Raydose
13.3.1 Graphical user interface
13.3.2 Post analysis of simulation data
13.3.3 System requirements
13.4 Case studies
13.4.1 Quantitative 90Y PET/CT-based dosimetry in liver radioembolization
13.4.2 Raydose phantom validation using 90Y
13.4.3 Quantitative 177Lu SPECT/CT-based dosimetry in peptide receptor radionuclide therapy
References
Chapter 14 The VIDA software for targeted radionuclide therapy
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Monte Carlo simulation
14.2.1 Detector geometry
14.2.2 Particles and physics
14.2.3 Primary event generation and scoring
14.3 3D kinetics processing
14.4 Validation
14.5 Application to intrathecal dosimetry
References
Chapter 15 Novel approaches for voxel-based dosimetry
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Dose kernel approaches
15.3 Direct Monte Carlo approach
15.4 Deep learning approach
15.5 Conclusions
References.
Chapter 16 The Monte Carlo method as a design tool in selective internal radiation therapy.