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Intro
List of figures
Figure 1.1: Tin mine dredging operations on Bangka Island near the probable source of the first fossils recovered from Sumatra.
Figure 1.2: Eugène Dubois (left) and Pieter van Stein Callenfels (right). Dubois undertook the first systematic exploration of caves for fossils in Sumatra during the 1880s. Van Stein Callenfels explored and excavated midden sites in northern Sumatra duri
Figure 2.1: Dubois' first sketch of the cave entries and layout of a site most likely to be Ngalau Sampit.
Figure 2.2: Drawing from Dubois' notebook showing the position of the Balei Pandjang cave in relation to the Sinamar River, which situates this cave near the location now called Nagari Bukik Sikumpa.
Figure 2.3: Part of a map from the Verbeek atlas and two excerpts from the Dubois notebooks concerning the surroundings of Ngalau Lida Ajer.
Figure 2.4: Sketches and drawings from Dubois' notebook and letter and their interpretation.
Figure 2.5: Recent Sus barbatus jawbone (RGM.1333508) at Naturalis Biodiversity Centre, Leiden, originally collected in Borneo by Büttikofer in 1894 but later added to the Dubois collection as a clear example of porcupine gnawing marks.
Figure 2.6: Dubois' sketch of Ngalau Gundja.
Figure 2.7: Drawing in Dubois' notebook related to Balei Pandjang.
Figure 2.8: Humerus of Dicerorhinus sumatrensis (DUB9276) from Ngalau Pandjang near Sibalen.
Figure 3.1: Dubois and his wife Anna Lojenga on the SS Amalia bound for Sumatra.
Figure 4.1: Verbeek's and Dubois' maps of the same area of the Padang Highlands.
Figure 4.2: Tourist Cave in the Padang Highlands, western Sumatra, in 1939, showing evidence of graffiti.
Figure 4.3: The Mecklenburg-Schwerin tourist group in front of Kamang Cave, western Sumatra, 1910.
Figure 5.1: The nine dated teeth from the Dubois collections from Sibrambang and Djambu, showing sampling positions.
Figure 5.2: Stable isotope analysis of δ13Cdiet (‰ VPDB) and δ18O (‰ VPDB) from faunal enamel of fossil mammals collected by Dubois from Sibrambang and Djambu compared with modern Southeast Asian representatives of their families.
Figure 5.3: 230Th age and U-concentration profiles in sections of dated fossil teeth from Dubois' collections from Sibrambang and Djambu.
Figure 6.1: Landmarks recorded on the upper third molar, with illustration of the occlusal surface and description of landmark location and type.
Figure 6.2: Length (Dap) and width (Dt) measurements of Padang Highlands Rusa sp., Pleistocene Cervus kendengensis and extant Southeast Asian Cervini.
Figure 6.3: Box plots of deviations from group mean per species, for lower third molar length and surface area.
Figure 6.4: Reconstructed body masses of the Rusa species from the Padang Highlands compared to a sample of recent species, namely Axis axis, Axis porcinus, Rusa unicolor and Rusa timorensis.
Figure 6.5: Principal component analysis and canonical variates analysis on Rusa sp. from the Padang Highlands and several species of the genus Rusa and the fossil Cervus kendengensis from Java.
Figure 6.6: Mesowear signal of Rusa sp. (Padang Highlands fossils) at different individual dental age stages (IDAS).
Figure 7.1: Southeast Asian map showing the limits of the biogeographic Indochinese and Sundaic subregions.
Figure 7.2: Locations of the Southeast Asian sites included in the study.
Figure 7.3: (A) Chronology of Southeast Asian sites included in the study and (B) chart of benthic foraminifera δ18O data during the Marine Isotope Substages for the last 200,000 years.
Figure 7.4: Proportion of archaic taxa (extinct genera or species) versus modern taxa among ungulates and proboscideans in fossil faunas.
Figure 7.5: Distribution of ruminant and non-ruminant taxa from Southeast Asian sites in fossil and recent faunas, by body size category.
Figure 7.6: Proportions of individuals (using minimum numbers of individuals or MNIs) showing the relative abundance of taxa within taxonomic groups recorded in fossil Southeast Asian faunas from Marine Isotope Stages 6 to 3.
Figure 7.7: Three-cohort (juvenile, subadult, and adult) mortality profiles of taxa: rhinoceros (Rhinoceros, Dicerorhinus), tapir (Tapirus), sambar (Rusa unicolor), and wild pig (Sus) from Duoi U'Oi (Vietnam) and Lida Ajer (Sumatra).
Figure 8.1: Typical osteon with Haversian canal and cement line.
Figure 8.2: Schematic diagram of bone sampling bands. (a) The two types of bands (PP and PE) examined in the study. (b) The arbitrary division used for PE band cortical bone.
Figure 8.3: The elephant bone PP and PE band montaged micrograph images that were examined for intact osteons.
Figure 8.4: Line drawing of bone samples showing visible taphonomic alteration and schematic of sample bands showing cortical bone composition (Haversian system, interstitial lamellae), and osteons.
Figure 8.5: Targeted sampling of fragmented 'extremely' large super osteons from the intercortical bone of the humerus.
Figure 9.1: Least-cost pathways from India (left) and China (right) to Sangiran, Java (red), and return pathways (pink) for the Asia scenario with sea-level -14 m relative to present.
Figure 9.2: Least-cost pathways from India (left) and China (right) to Sangiran, Java (red), and return pathways (pink) for the Java scenario with sea-level -46 m relative to present.
Figure 9.3: Least-cost pathways from India (left) and China (right) to Sangiran, Java (red), and return pathways (pink) for the LGM scenario with sea-level -135 m relative to present.
Figure 9.4: Least-cost pathways from India (left) and China (right) to Sangiran, Java (red), and return pathways (pink) for the Highstand scenario with sea-level +9 m relative to present.
Figure 9.5: Least- cost pathways from India (left) and China (right) to Sangiran, Java (red), and return pathways (pink) for the Mean scenario with sea-level -54 m relative to present.
Figure 9.6: Least-cost pathways from India (left) and China (right) to Sangiran, Java (red), and return pathways (pink) for the 75% scenario with sea-level -33 m relative to present.
Figure 9.7: Least-cost pathways from India (left) and China (right) to Sangiran, Java (red), and return pathways (pink) for the 25% scenario with sea-level -75 m relative to present.
Figure 9.8: Least-cost pathways along the east coast of Sumatra under different sea-level conditions.
Figure 10.1: Relief map of Sumatra showing the location of all areas and sites mentioned in the text and general physiographical information.
Figure 10.2: Views of the environments associated with the Palaeolithic open-air sites in South Sumatra.
Figure 10.3: Examples of ancient Palaeolithic implements found in the Air Tawar and Air Semuhun rivers.
Figure 10.4: Examples of ancient Palaeolithic implements found in the Air Tawar and Air Semuhun rivers.
Figure 10.5: The Hoabinhian site of Sukajadi, near Medan, North Sumatra.
Figure 10.6: Tögi Ndrawa Cave site, Nias Island, North Sumatra.
Figure 10.7: Examples of Hoabinhian implements, Gua Pandan, South Sumatra.
Figure 11.1: Map of Indonesian regional geology.
Figure 11.2: Location map of metal sites in Indonesia mentioned in the text.
Figure 11.3: The appearance of Harimau Cave when it was discovered in 2008.
Figure 11.4: Metal artefacts from Harimau Cave.
Figure 11.5: Burials associated with metal artefacts at Harimau Cave.
Figure 11.6: Similar motifs found at Harimau Cave on a bronze bracelet, on pottery and in cave paintings.
Figure 11.7: Map showing the Musi River, running from the hinterland to the coast, and its tributaries.
Figure 11.A1: p-XRF spectra result from artefact no. 1.
Figure 11.A2: p-XRF spectra result from artefact no. 2.
Figure 11.A3: p-XRF spectra result from artefact no. 3.
Figure 11.A4: p-XRF spectra result from artefact no. 4.
Figure 11.A5: p-XRF spectra result from artefact no. 5.
Figure 11.A6: p-XRF spectra result from artefact no. 6.
Figure 11.A7: p-XRF spectra result from artefact no. 7.
Figure 11.A8: p-XRF spectra result from artefact no. 8.
Figure 12.1: Map showing the core regions of the three ethnic groups discussed in this text.
Figure 12.2: Megalith in Dusun Tuo, Highlands of Jambi, Sumatra.
Figure 12.3: Carved rock near Desa Air Puar, Pasemah.
Figure 12.4: Statue in Pulau Panggung, Pasemah.
Figure 12.5: Islamic tombs in Saruaso, Tanah Datar.
Figure 12.6: Megalith in Tabagak, Mahat.
Figure 12.7: Megalith in Tanjung Bunga, Mahat.
Figure 12.8: Stone sarcophagus of the marga (clan) Sidaputar in Tomok, Samosir, Sumatra.
Figure 12.9: Stone statue of a horse and rider in Santar Jehe, Pakpak Dairi.
Figure 12.10: Stone rider statue, female statue and cremation urns in Lebuh Kitepapan, Pakpak Dairi.
Figure 13.1: Map of the Sumatra region showing Lida Ajer and other major locations mentioned in this chapter.
Figure 13.2: Plan views of Lida Ajer Cave.
Figure 13.3: Fossil orangutan tooth collected from the fossil chamber of Lida Ajer Cave.
Figure 13.4: Bottle fragment from Lida Ajer Cave.
List of figures
Figure 1.1: Tin mine dredging operations on Bangka Island near the probable source of the first fossils recovered from Sumatra.
Figure 1.2: Eugène Dubois (left) and Pieter van Stein Callenfels (right). Dubois undertook the first systematic exploration of caves for fossils in Sumatra during the 1880s. Van Stein Callenfels explored and excavated midden sites in northern Sumatra duri
Figure 2.1: Dubois' first sketch of the cave entries and layout of a site most likely to be Ngalau Sampit.
Figure 2.2: Drawing from Dubois' notebook showing the position of the Balei Pandjang cave in relation to the Sinamar River, which situates this cave near the location now called Nagari Bukik Sikumpa.
Figure 2.3: Part of a map from the Verbeek atlas and two excerpts from the Dubois notebooks concerning the surroundings of Ngalau Lida Ajer.
Figure 2.4: Sketches and drawings from Dubois' notebook and letter and their interpretation.
Figure 2.5: Recent Sus barbatus jawbone (RGM.1333508) at Naturalis Biodiversity Centre, Leiden, originally collected in Borneo by Büttikofer in 1894 but later added to the Dubois collection as a clear example of porcupine gnawing marks.
Figure 2.6: Dubois' sketch of Ngalau Gundja.
Figure 2.7: Drawing in Dubois' notebook related to Balei Pandjang.
Figure 2.8: Humerus of Dicerorhinus sumatrensis (DUB9276) from Ngalau Pandjang near Sibalen.
Figure 3.1: Dubois and his wife Anna Lojenga on the SS Amalia bound for Sumatra.
Figure 4.1: Verbeek's and Dubois' maps of the same area of the Padang Highlands.
Figure 4.2: Tourist Cave in the Padang Highlands, western Sumatra, in 1939, showing evidence of graffiti.
Figure 4.3: The Mecklenburg-Schwerin tourist group in front of Kamang Cave, western Sumatra, 1910.
Figure 5.1: The nine dated teeth from the Dubois collections from Sibrambang and Djambu, showing sampling positions.
Figure 5.2: Stable isotope analysis of δ13Cdiet (‰ VPDB) and δ18O (‰ VPDB) from faunal enamel of fossil mammals collected by Dubois from Sibrambang and Djambu compared with modern Southeast Asian representatives of their families.
Figure 5.3: 230Th age and U-concentration profiles in sections of dated fossil teeth from Dubois' collections from Sibrambang and Djambu.
Figure 6.1: Landmarks recorded on the upper third molar, with illustration of the occlusal surface and description of landmark location and type.
Figure 6.2: Length (Dap) and width (Dt) measurements of Padang Highlands Rusa sp., Pleistocene Cervus kendengensis and extant Southeast Asian Cervini.
Figure 6.3: Box plots of deviations from group mean per species, for lower third molar length and surface area.
Figure 6.4: Reconstructed body masses of the Rusa species from the Padang Highlands compared to a sample of recent species, namely Axis axis, Axis porcinus, Rusa unicolor and Rusa timorensis.
Figure 6.5: Principal component analysis and canonical variates analysis on Rusa sp. from the Padang Highlands and several species of the genus Rusa and the fossil Cervus kendengensis from Java.
Figure 6.6: Mesowear signal of Rusa sp. (Padang Highlands fossils) at different individual dental age stages (IDAS).
Figure 7.1: Southeast Asian map showing the limits of the biogeographic Indochinese and Sundaic subregions.
Figure 7.2: Locations of the Southeast Asian sites included in the study.
Figure 7.3: (A) Chronology of Southeast Asian sites included in the study and (B) chart of benthic foraminifera δ18O data during the Marine Isotope Substages for the last 200,000 years.
Figure 7.4: Proportion of archaic taxa (extinct genera or species) versus modern taxa among ungulates and proboscideans in fossil faunas.
Figure 7.5: Distribution of ruminant and non-ruminant taxa from Southeast Asian sites in fossil and recent faunas, by body size category.
Figure 7.6: Proportions of individuals (using minimum numbers of individuals or MNIs) showing the relative abundance of taxa within taxonomic groups recorded in fossil Southeast Asian faunas from Marine Isotope Stages 6 to 3.
Figure 7.7: Three-cohort (juvenile, subadult, and adult) mortality profiles of taxa: rhinoceros (Rhinoceros, Dicerorhinus), tapir (Tapirus), sambar (Rusa unicolor), and wild pig (Sus) from Duoi U'Oi (Vietnam) and Lida Ajer (Sumatra).
Figure 8.1: Typical osteon with Haversian canal and cement line.
Figure 8.2: Schematic diagram of bone sampling bands. (a) The two types of bands (PP and PE) examined in the study. (b) The arbitrary division used for PE band cortical bone.
Figure 8.3: The elephant bone PP and PE band montaged micrograph images that were examined for intact osteons.
Figure 8.4: Line drawing of bone samples showing visible taphonomic alteration and schematic of sample bands showing cortical bone composition (Haversian system, interstitial lamellae), and osteons.
Figure 8.5: Targeted sampling of fragmented 'extremely' large super osteons from the intercortical bone of the humerus.
Figure 9.1: Least-cost pathways from India (left) and China (right) to Sangiran, Java (red), and return pathways (pink) for the Asia scenario with sea-level -14 m relative to present.
Figure 9.2: Least-cost pathways from India (left) and China (right) to Sangiran, Java (red), and return pathways (pink) for the Java scenario with sea-level -46 m relative to present.
Figure 9.3: Least-cost pathways from India (left) and China (right) to Sangiran, Java (red), and return pathways (pink) for the LGM scenario with sea-level -135 m relative to present.
Figure 9.4: Least-cost pathways from India (left) and China (right) to Sangiran, Java (red), and return pathways (pink) for the Highstand scenario with sea-level +9 m relative to present.
Figure 9.5: Least- cost pathways from India (left) and China (right) to Sangiran, Java (red), and return pathways (pink) for the Mean scenario with sea-level -54 m relative to present.
Figure 9.6: Least-cost pathways from India (left) and China (right) to Sangiran, Java (red), and return pathways (pink) for the 75% scenario with sea-level -33 m relative to present.
Figure 9.7: Least-cost pathways from India (left) and China (right) to Sangiran, Java (red), and return pathways (pink) for the 25% scenario with sea-level -75 m relative to present.
Figure 9.8: Least-cost pathways along the east coast of Sumatra under different sea-level conditions.
Figure 10.1: Relief map of Sumatra showing the location of all areas and sites mentioned in the text and general physiographical information.
Figure 10.2: Views of the environments associated with the Palaeolithic open-air sites in South Sumatra.
Figure 10.3: Examples of ancient Palaeolithic implements found in the Air Tawar and Air Semuhun rivers.
Figure 10.4: Examples of ancient Palaeolithic implements found in the Air Tawar and Air Semuhun rivers.
Figure 10.5: The Hoabinhian site of Sukajadi, near Medan, North Sumatra.
Figure 10.6: Tögi Ndrawa Cave site, Nias Island, North Sumatra.
Figure 10.7: Examples of Hoabinhian implements, Gua Pandan, South Sumatra.
Figure 11.1: Map of Indonesian regional geology.
Figure 11.2: Location map of metal sites in Indonesia mentioned in the text.
Figure 11.3: The appearance of Harimau Cave when it was discovered in 2008.
Figure 11.4: Metal artefacts from Harimau Cave.
Figure 11.5: Burials associated with metal artefacts at Harimau Cave.
Figure 11.6: Similar motifs found at Harimau Cave on a bronze bracelet, on pottery and in cave paintings.
Figure 11.7: Map showing the Musi River, running from the hinterland to the coast, and its tributaries.
Figure 11.A1: p-XRF spectra result from artefact no. 1.
Figure 11.A2: p-XRF spectra result from artefact no. 2.
Figure 11.A3: p-XRF spectra result from artefact no. 3.
Figure 11.A4: p-XRF spectra result from artefact no. 4.
Figure 11.A5: p-XRF spectra result from artefact no. 5.
Figure 11.A6: p-XRF spectra result from artefact no. 6.
Figure 11.A7: p-XRF spectra result from artefact no. 7.
Figure 11.A8: p-XRF spectra result from artefact no. 8.
Figure 12.1: Map showing the core regions of the three ethnic groups discussed in this text.
Figure 12.2: Megalith in Dusun Tuo, Highlands of Jambi, Sumatra.
Figure 12.3: Carved rock near Desa Air Puar, Pasemah.
Figure 12.4: Statue in Pulau Panggung, Pasemah.
Figure 12.5: Islamic tombs in Saruaso, Tanah Datar.
Figure 12.6: Megalith in Tabagak, Mahat.
Figure 12.7: Megalith in Tanjung Bunga, Mahat.
Figure 12.8: Stone sarcophagus of the marga (clan) Sidaputar in Tomok, Samosir, Sumatra.
Figure 12.9: Stone statue of a horse and rider in Santar Jehe, Pakpak Dairi.
Figure 12.10: Stone rider statue, female statue and cremation urns in Lebuh Kitepapan, Pakpak Dairi.
Figure 13.1: Map of the Sumatra region showing Lida Ajer and other major locations mentioned in this chapter.
Figure 13.2: Plan views of Lida Ajer Cave.
Figure 13.3: Fossil orangutan tooth collected from the fossil chamber of Lida Ajer Cave.
Figure 13.4: Bottle fragment from Lida Ajer Cave.