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Table of Contents
Preface
Acknowledgments
Chapter 1: Overview Of Wind Energy Business
Introduction
Worldwide business of wind energy
Cost of wind energy
Benefits of wind energy
Wind energy is not a panacea
Chapter 2: Basics Of Wind Energy And Power
Introduction
Kinetic energy of wind
Sensitivity of power to rotor radius and wind speed
Basic concepts/equations
Conservation of mass
Conservation of energy
Conservation of momentum
Derivation of Betz limit
Meaning of Betz limit
Wind versus water
Chapter 3: Properties Of Wind
Introduction
How is wind generated?
Statistical distribution of wind speed
Mean and mode of Weibull distribution for wind speed
Power density
Wind classes
Wind shear
Understanding wind shear
Density of air as a function of elevation
Density of air as a function of humidity
Chapter 4: Aerodynamics Of Wind Turbine Blades
Introduction
Airfoils
Relative velocity of wind
Rotor disk theory
Lift force
Equal transit time fallacy
Rotation fluid flow, circulation, and vortices
Real fluids
Flow of fluid over an airfoil
Effect of Reynolds number on lift and drag coefficients
Drag-based turbines
Chapter 5: Advanced Aerodynamics Of Wind Turbine Blades
Introduction
Blade element model
Constant-speed turbines, stall-versus pitch-regulated
Variable-speed turbines
Power curves
Vertical axis wind turbine (VAWT)
Chapter 6: Wind Measurement
Introduction
Definition of wind speed
Configurations to measure wind
Anemometer
Calibration of anemometers
Wind vane
Placement of sensors
Impact of inflow angle
Impact of temperature
Uncertainty in wind speed measurement with anemometers
Example of error estimate
Other sensors
Data logger and communication device
Designing a wind measurement campaign
Installation of met-towers
Example of met-tower installation
Data management
Data processing
Computed quantities
Turbulence
Wind shear
Air density
Power density
Remote sensing to measure wind speed
Pros and cons of remote sensing for wind measurements
Chapter 7: Wind Resource Assessment
Introduction
Overview of wind resource assessment
Source of wind data
Resource estimation models
Mesoscale models
CFD models
WAsP, a microscale model
Definitions
Phases of resource assessment
Preliminary wind resource assessment
Wind resource map lookup
Preliminary analysis of data from neighboring airports and other met-towers
Detailed analysis of wind data from neighboring airports and other met-towers
Onsite wind measurement
Spatial extrapolation of wind resources from measured locations to planned wind turbine locations
Hindcasting/MCP of measured data
Predict
Annual energy computations
Chapter 8: Advanced Wind Resource Assessment
Introduction
Extreme wind speed (EWS)
WAsP model in rugged terrain
Wake of turbines
N O Jensen model for wake
Ainslie's Eddy viscosity model
Combining wind speed deficits from multiple turbines
Turbulence modeling
Optimal layout of turbines in wind farm
Wind turbine class selection
Estimation of losses
Uncertainty analysis
Estimating uncertainty of annual energy production: framework for combining uncertainty
Nonbankable versus bankable resource estimates
Chapter 9: Wind Turbine Generator (WTG) Components
Introduction
Rotor system
Blades
Forces and moments
Rotor hub
Alternative configurations of turbines
Pitch
Nacelle
Gearbox
Yaw drive
Nacelle housing and frame
Lifting/lowering mechanism
Towers
Foundation
Spread-footing foundation
Design loads of wind turbines
Design wind conditions
Normal wind profile model (NWP)
Extreme wind speed model (EWM)
Turbine certification
Chapter 10: Basics Of Electricity And Generators
Introduction
Basic principles of electromagnetism
Faraday's Law of induction
Lenz Law
Lorenz Law or Biot-Savart Law
Basic principles of alternating current
Basic principles of electrical machines
Conversion of mechanical to electrical power
Synchronous generator
Analysis of synchronous generators
Variable-speed permanent magnet synchronous generators
Direct-drive synchronous generator (DDSG)
Asynchronous generators
Variable speed
Chapter 11: Deploying Wind Turbines In Grid
Introduction
What happens on a grid when there is no wind?
Scheduling and dispatch of wind resources
Single-line diagram
Transmission and distribution
Standards for interconnection
Power factor and reactive power
Low-voltage ride-through
Power quality: flicker, and harmonics
Short-circuit power
Wind farm topologies
Protection systems
Grounding for overvoltage and lightning protection
Lightning protection
Transformers for wind applications
Wind-plant interconnection and transmission study
Transmission bottlenecks
SCADA systems
Data acquisition
Reporting
Control
Chapter 12: Environmental Impact Of Wind Projects
Introduction
Framework for analyzing environmental impact
Context of environmental impact
Temporal and spatial scale
Cumulative effects
Quick comparison of wind versus fossil fuel-based electricity production
Impact of wind farms on wildlife
Noise from wind turbines
Mitigation of noise
Low-frequency noise
Shadow flicker
Aesthetic impact
Hazard to aviation
Electromagnetic interference
Microwave
TV and radio transmissions
Radar
Financial statements
Income statement and cash flow for a wind project
Balance sheet for a wind project
Financial performance
Net present value (NPV)
Payback period
Internal rate of return (IRR)
Impact of tax credits and accelerated depreciation on financial performance
Financing and structure of wind projects
Financial evaluation of alternatives
Chapter 14: Planning And Execution Of Wind Projects
Introduction
High-level project plan and timeline
Development
Prospecting
Wind measurement and detailed wind assessment
Project siting, interconnection, and PPA
Project engineering and procurement
Project financing
Construction, installation, and commissioning
Construction of infrastructure
Site preparation
Foundation construction and turbine erection
Collection system and substation construction
Commissioning
Operations
Index.
Acknowledgments
Chapter 1: Overview Of Wind Energy Business
Introduction
Worldwide business of wind energy
Cost of wind energy
Benefits of wind energy
Wind energy is not a panacea
Chapter 2: Basics Of Wind Energy And Power
Introduction
Kinetic energy of wind
Sensitivity of power to rotor radius and wind speed
Basic concepts/equations
Conservation of mass
Conservation of energy
Conservation of momentum
Derivation of Betz limit
Meaning of Betz limit
Wind versus water
Chapter 3: Properties Of Wind
Introduction
How is wind generated?
Statistical distribution of wind speed
Mean and mode of Weibull distribution for wind speed
Power density
Wind classes
Wind shear
Understanding wind shear
Density of air as a function of elevation
Density of air as a function of humidity
Chapter 4: Aerodynamics Of Wind Turbine Blades
Introduction
Airfoils
Relative velocity of wind
Rotor disk theory
Lift force
Equal transit time fallacy
Rotation fluid flow, circulation, and vortices
Real fluids
Flow of fluid over an airfoil
Effect of Reynolds number on lift and drag coefficients
Drag-based turbines
Chapter 5: Advanced Aerodynamics Of Wind Turbine Blades
Introduction
Blade element model
Constant-speed turbines, stall-versus pitch-regulated
Variable-speed turbines
Power curves
Vertical axis wind turbine (VAWT)
Chapter 6: Wind Measurement
Introduction
Definition of wind speed
Configurations to measure wind
Anemometer
Calibration of anemometers
Wind vane
Placement of sensors
Impact of inflow angle
Impact of temperature
Uncertainty in wind speed measurement with anemometers
Example of error estimate
Other sensors
Data logger and communication device
Designing a wind measurement campaign
Installation of met-towers
Example of met-tower installation
Data management
Data processing
Computed quantities
Turbulence
Wind shear
Air density
Power density
Remote sensing to measure wind speed
Pros and cons of remote sensing for wind measurements
Chapter 7: Wind Resource Assessment
Introduction
Overview of wind resource assessment
Source of wind data
Resource estimation models
Mesoscale models
CFD models
WAsP, a microscale model
Definitions
Phases of resource assessment
Preliminary wind resource assessment
Wind resource map lookup
Preliminary analysis of data from neighboring airports and other met-towers
Detailed analysis of wind data from neighboring airports and other met-towers
Onsite wind measurement
Spatial extrapolation of wind resources from measured locations to planned wind turbine locations
Hindcasting/MCP of measured data
Predict
Annual energy computations
Chapter 8: Advanced Wind Resource Assessment
Introduction
Extreme wind speed (EWS)
WAsP model in rugged terrain
Wake of turbines
N O Jensen model for wake
Ainslie's Eddy viscosity model
Combining wind speed deficits from multiple turbines
Turbulence modeling
Optimal layout of turbines in wind farm
Wind turbine class selection
Estimation of losses
Uncertainty analysis
Estimating uncertainty of annual energy production: framework for combining uncertainty
Nonbankable versus bankable resource estimates
Chapter 9: Wind Turbine Generator (WTG) Components
Introduction
Rotor system
Blades
Forces and moments
Rotor hub
Alternative configurations of turbines
Pitch
Nacelle
Gearbox
Yaw drive
Nacelle housing and frame
Lifting/lowering mechanism
Towers
Foundation
Spread-footing foundation
Design loads of wind turbines
Design wind conditions
Normal wind profile model (NWP)
Extreme wind speed model (EWM)
Turbine certification
Chapter 10: Basics Of Electricity And Generators
Introduction
Basic principles of electromagnetism
Faraday's Law of induction
Lenz Law
Lorenz Law or Biot-Savart Law
Basic principles of alternating current
Basic principles of electrical machines
Conversion of mechanical to electrical power
Synchronous generator
Analysis of synchronous generators
Variable-speed permanent magnet synchronous generators
Direct-drive synchronous generator (DDSG)
Asynchronous generators
Variable speed
Chapter 11: Deploying Wind Turbines In Grid
Introduction
What happens on a grid when there is no wind?
Scheduling and dispatch of wind resources
Single-line diagram
Transmission and distribution
Standards for interconnection
Power factor and reactive power
Low-voltage ride-through
Power quality: flicker, and harmonics
Short-circuit power
Wind farm topologies
Protection systems
Grounding for overvoltage and lightning protection
Lightning protection
Transformers for wind applications
Wind-plant interconnection and transmission study
Transmission bottlenecks
SCADA systems
Data acquisition
Reporting
Control
Chapter 12: Environmental Impact Of Wind Projects
Introduction
Framework for analyzing environmental impact
Context of environmental impact
Temporal and spatial scale
Cumulative effects
Quick comparison of wind versus fossil fuel-based electricity production
Impact of wind farms on wildlife
Noise from wind turbines
Mitigation of noise
Low-frequency noise
Shadow flicker
Aesthetic impact
Hazard to aviation
Electromagnetic interference
Microwave
TV and radio transmissions
Radar
Financial statements
Income statement and cash flow for a wind project
Balance sheet for a wind project
Financial performance
Net present value (NPV)
Payback period
Internal rate of return (IRR)
Impact of tax credits and accelerated depreciation on financial performance
Financing and structure of wind projects
Financial evaluation of alternatives
Chapter 14: Planning And Execution Of Wind Projects
Introduction
High-level project plan and timeline
Development
Prospecting
Wind measurement and detailed wind assessment
Project siting, interconnection, and PPA
Project engineering and procurement
Project financing
Construction, installation, and commissioning
Construction of infrastructure
Site preparation
Foundation construction and turbine erection
Collection system and substation construction
Commissioning
Operations
Index.