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Impact of Food Processing on Anthocyanins Doctoral Thesis accepted by National University of Singapore, Singapore; Parts of this thesis have been published in the following journal articles:; Supervisor's Foreword; Acknowledgements; Contents; 1 Introduction; 1.1 Background; 1.2 Aims and Objectives; References; 2 Literature Review; 2.1 Anthocyanins; 2.2 Color of Anthocyanins; 2.3 Function of Anthocyanins; 2.4 Stability of Anthocyanins; 2.4.1 Structure Influence; 2.4.2 Co-pigmentation Influence; 2.4.3 pH Influence; 2.4.4 Thermal Influence; 2.4.5 Solid Content Influence
2.4.6 Water Activity (Aw) Influence2.4.7 Oxygen Influence; 2.5 Degradation of Anthocyanins; References; 3 Monte Carlo Modelling of Non-isothermal Degradation of Two Cyanidin-Based Anthocyanins in Aqueous System at High Temperatures and its Impact on Antioxidant Capacities; 3.1 Introduction; 3.2 Materials and Methods; 3.2.1 Materials; 3.2.2 Purification Procedure of Anthocyanins; 3.2.3 Thermal Treatment of Anthocyanin Solutions; 3.2.4 Quantification and Identification of Anthocyanins Using LCDAD and LCMS; 3.2.5 Non-isothermal Kinetic Modelling; 3.2.6 Monte Carlo Simulation
3.2.7 Validation of the Developed Models3.2.8 Antioxidant Capacity Measurement; 3.2.8.1 DPPH Assay; 3.2.8.2 ABTS Assay; 3.3 Results and Discussion; 3.3.1 Anthocyanin Composition of Black Rice; 3.3.2 Degradation Rate Constant and Activation Energy; 3.3.3 Model Validation; 3.3.4 Monte Carlo Simulation of Non-isothermal Degradation; 3.3.5 Antioxidant Capacity of Thermally Treated Anthocyanin Solutions; 3.4 Conclusions; References; 4 Combined Effect of pH and High Temperature on the Stability and Antioxidant Capacity of Two Anthocyanins in Aqueous Solution; 4.1 Introduction
4.2 Materials and Methods4.2.1 Materials; 4.2.2 Cleaning Procedure of Anthocyanins; 4.2.3 Preparation of Anthocyanin Buffer Solution; 4.2.4 Thermal Treatment of Anthocyanin Buffer Solutions; 4.2.5 Quantification of Anthocyanins Using HPLCDAD; 4.2.6 Antioxidant Capacity Analysis; 4.2.7 Kinetic Model Development; 4.2.8 Statistical Analysis; 4.3 Results and Discussion; 4.3.1 pH Profile of Anthocyanin Buffer Solutions; 4.3.2 Thermal Degradation Kinetics; 4.3.2.1 Effect of Temperature; 4.3.2.2 Effect of pH; 4.3.2.3 Combined Effect of pH and Temperature
4.3.2.4 Activation Energy and Exponential Factor4.3.3 Antioxidant Capacity; 4.4 Conclusions; References; 5 Changes in the Color, Chemical Stability and Antioxidant Capacity of Thermally Treated Anthocyanin Aqueous Solution Over Storage; 5.1 Introduction; 5.2 Materials and Methods; 5.2.1 Materials; 5.2.2 Purification Procedure of Anthocyanins; 5.2.3 Thermal Treatment of Anthocyanin Aqueous Solution; 5.2.4 Accelerated Shelf-Life Testing; 5.2.5 Quantification of Anthocyanins Using HPLCDAD; 5.2.6 Color Measurement and Modelling; 5.2.7 Antioxidant Capacity Measurement; 5.2.8 Statistical Analysis
2.4.6 Water Activity (Aw) Influence2.4.7 Oxygen Influence; 2.5 Degradation of Anthocyanins; References; 3 Monte Carlo Modelling of Non-isothermal Degradation of Two Cyanidin-Based Anthocyanins in Aqueous System at High Temperatures and its Impact on Antioxidant Capacities; 3.1 Introduction; 3.2 Materials and Methods; 3.2.1 Materials; 3.2.2 Purification Procedure of Anthocyanins; 3.2.3 Thermal Treatment of Anthocyanin Solutions; 3.2.4 Quantification and Identification of Anthocyanins Using LCDAD and LCMS; 3.2.5 Non-isothermal Kinetic Modelling; 3.2.6 Monte Carlo Simulation
3.2.7 Validation of the Developed Models3.2.8 Antioxidant Capacity Measurement; 3.2.8.1 DPPH Assay; 3.2.8.2 ABTS Assay; 3.3 Results and Discussion; 3.3.1 Anthocyanin Composition of Black Rice; 3.3.2 Degradation Rate Constant and Activation Energy; 3.3.3 Model Validation; 3.3.4 Monte Carlo Simulation of Non-isothermal Degradation; 3.3.5 Antioxidant Capacity of Thermally Treated Anthocyanin Solutions; 3.4 Conclusions; References; 4 Combined Effect of pH and High Temperature on the Stability and Antioxidant Capacity of Two Anthocyanins in Aqueous Solution; 4.1 Introduction
4.2 Materials and Methods4.2.1 Materials; 4.2.2 Cleaning Procedure of Anthocyanins; 4.2.3 Preparation of Anthocyanin Buffer Solution; 4.2.4 Thermal Treatment of Anthocyanin Buffer Solutions; 4.2.5 Quantification of Anthocyanins Using HPLCDAD; 4.2.6 Antioxidant Capacity Analysis; 4.2.7 Kinetic Model Development; 4.2.8 Statistical Analysis; 4.3 Results and Discussion; 4.3.1 pH Profile of Anthocyanin Buffer Solutions; 4.3.2 Thermal Degradation Kinetics; 4.3.2.1 Effect of Temperature; 4.3.2.2 Effect of pH; 4.3.2.3 Combined Effect of pH and Temperature
4.3.2.4 Activation Energy and Exponential Factor4.3.3 Antioxidant Capacity; 4.4 Conclusions; References; 5 Changes in the Color, Chemical Stability and Antioxidant Capacity of Thermally Treated Anthocyanin Aqueous Solution Over Storage; 5.1 Introduction; 5.2 Materials and Methods; 5.2.1 Materials; 5.2.2 Purification Procedure of Anthocyanins; 5.2.3 Thermal Treatment of Anthocyanin Aqueous Solution; 5.2.4 Accelerated Shelf-Life Testing; 5.2.5 Quantification of Anthocyanins Using HPLCDAD; 5.2.6 Color Measurement and Modelling; 5.2.7 Antioxidant Capacity Measurement; 5.2.8 Statistical Analysis