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Supervisor's Foreword; Abstract; Parts of this thesis have been published in the following journal articles:Massimiliano Materazzi, Paola Lettieri, Luca Mazzei, Richard Taylor, Chris Chapman, Tar evolution in a two stage fluid bed-plasma gasification process for waste valorization, Fuel Processing Technology, Volume 128, December 2014, Pages 146-157Massimiliano Materazzi, Paola Lettieri, Luca Mazzei, Richard Taylor, Chris Chapman, Reforming of tars and organic sulphur compounds in a plasma-assisted process for waste gasificatio; Acknowledgements; Contents; Nomenclature; List of Figures
List of Tables1 Introduction; 1.1 World Energy Outlook; 1.2 The Waste Debate; 1.3 Waste as a Resource of Energy; 1.4 Basics of Thermochemical Waste-to-Energy Technologies; 1.4.1 Pyrolysis; 1.4.2 Gasification; 1.4.3 Plasma Arc Gasification; 1.4.4 Hydrothermal Liquefaction; 1.5 Current Obstacles to WtE Plants Deployment; 1.6 Aims of the Thesis; 1.7 Methodology; 1.7.1 Operation of Fluidised Bed Reactors on Waste Fuels; 1.7.2 Plasma for Treatment of Ashes and Gases; 1.7.3 Performance Analysis of Two-Stage Versus Single Stage Processes
1.7.4 Reforming Mechanisms of Tars and Organic Sulphur Compounds in Plasma Environment1.7.5 Partitioning and Chemistry of Inorganic Components in the Solid Phase; 1.8 Thesis Outline; References; 2 Gasification of Waste Derived Fuels in Fluidized Beds: Fundamental Aspects and Industrial Challenges; 2.1 Fuel Characterization; 2.1.1 Fuel Preparation; 2.1.2 Component Materials; 2.1.3 Organic Content; 2.1.4 Ash Content and Composition; 2.1.5 Moisture Content; 2.1.6 Element Content; 2.1.6.1 Ultimate Analysis; 2.1.6.2 Proximate Analysis; 2.1.7 The Energy Value of RDF
2.1.8 Preliminary Considerations Based on Fuel Characterization2.2 Fluidized Bed Gasification: Process Overview; 2.2.1 Material in-Feeding; 2.2.2 Heating and Drying; 2.2.3 Devolatilization and Volatile Conversion; 2.2.4 Fixed Carbon Conversion; 2.2.5 Particle Attrition and Elutriation; 2.2.6 Comparison Between Conventional and Waste Fuels; 2.3 Ash Behaviour and Agglomeration Issues; 2.3.1 Mechanism; 2.3.2 Effect of Temperature and Segregation Profiles; 2.3.3 Effect of RDF Ash Composition; 2.3.4 Entrainment, Slagging and Fouling; 2.3.5 Use and Disposal of Solid Residues
2.4 Tar Formation and Reduction Measures2.4.1 Tar Definition and Formation; 2.4.2 Effect of Temperature; 2.4.3 Effect of Equivalent Ratio and Steam; 2.4.4 Effects of Residence Time; 2.4.5 Effect of Active Materials; 2.4.6 Physical Tar Reduction Measures; 2.4.6.1 Wet ESP's for Tar Removal; 2.4.6.2 Wet Scrubbers; 2.4.6.3 Use and Disposal of Collected Tars; 2.4.7 Thermal and Plasma Cracking; 2.5 Remarks and Conclusions; References; 3 Plasma as an Alternative Way to Gas Reforming and Ash Disposal; 3.1 Plasma Principles; 3.2 Plasma in Hydrocarbon Processing Applications; 3.2.1 Non-thermal Plasmas
List of Tables1 Introduction; 1.1 World Energy Outlook; 1.2 The Waste Debate; 1.3 Waste as a Resource of Energy; 1.4 Basics of Thermochemical Waste-to-Energy Technologies; 1.4.1 Pyrolysis; 1.4.2 Gasification; 1.4.3 Plasma Arc Gasification; 1.4.4 Hydrothermal Liquefaction; 1.5 Current Obstacles to WtE Plants Deployment; 1.6 Aims of the Thesis; 1.7 Methodology; 1.7.1 Operation of Fluidised Bed Reactors on Waste Fuels; 1.7.2 Plasma for Treatment of Ashes and Gases; 1.7.3 Performance Analysis of Two-Stage Versus Single Stage Processes
1.7.4 Reforming Mechanisms of Tars and Organic Sulphur Compounds in Plasma Environment1.7.5 Partitioning and Chemistry of Inorganic Components in the Solid Phase; 1.8 Thesis Outline; References; 2 Gasification of Waste Derived Fuels in Fluidized Beds: Fundamental Aspects and Industrial Challenges; 2.1 Fuel Characterization; 2.1.1 Fuel Preparation; 2.1.2 Component Materials; 2.1.3 Organic Content; 2.1.4 Ash Content and Composition; 2.1.5 Moisture Content; 2.1.6 Element Content; 2.1.6.1 Ultimate Analysis; 2.1.6.2 Proximate Analysis; 2.1.7 The Energy Value of RDF
2.1.8 Preliminary Considerations Based on Fuel Characterization2.2 Fluidized Bed Gasification: Process Overview; 2.2.1 Material in-Feeding; 2.2.2 Heating and Drying; 2.2.3 Devolatilization and Volatile Conversion; 2.2.4 Fixed Carbon Conversion; 2.2.5 Particle Attrition and Elutriation; 2.2.6 Comparison Between Conventional and Waste Fuels; 2.3 Ash Behaviour and Agglomeration Issues; 2.3.1 Mechanism; 2.3.2 Effect of Temperature and Segregation Profiles; 2.3.3 Effect of RDF Ash Composition; 2.3.4 Entrainment, Slagging and Fouling; 2.3.5 Use and Disposal of Solid Residues
2.4 Tar Formation and Reduction Measures2.4.1 Tar Definition and Formation; 2.4.2 Effect of Temperature; 2.4.3 Effect of Equivalent Ratio and Steam; 2.4.4 Effects of Residence Time; 2.4.5 Effect of Active Materials; 2.4.6 Physical Tar Reduction Measures; 2.4.6.1 Wet ESP's for Tar Removal; 2.4.6.2 Wet Scrubbers; 2.4.6.3 Use and Disposal of Collected Tars; 2.4.7 Thermal and Plasma Cracking; 2.5 Remarks and Conclusions; References; 3 Plasma as an Alternative Way to Gas Reforming and Ash Disposal; 3.1 Plasma Principles; 3.2 Plasma in Hydrocarbon Processing Applications; 3.2.1 Non-thermal Plasmas