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Table of Contents
Acknowledgements; Contents; List of Figures; List of Tables; Part I: Global Context of Freshwater Resources; Chapter 1: Global Water Availability, Distribution and Use; 1.1 Introduction; 1.2 Water Availability and Distribution; 1.3 Water Use; 1.3.1 Agriculture; 1.3.2 Industries, Mining and Energy; 1.3.3 Domestic, Recreational and Environmental; References; Chapter 2: Global Water Quality Challenges; 2.1 Introduction; 2.2 Main Types of Water Pollution; 2.2.1 Point Sources; 2.2.2 Non-point Sources; 2.3 Main Contaminants and Problems; 2.3.1 Nutrients; 2.3.2 Erosion and Sedimentation
2.3.3 Water Temperature2.3.4 Acidification; 2.3.5 Salinity; 2.3.6 Pathogenic Organisms; 2.3.7 Trace Metals, Human-Produced Chemicals and Other Toxins; 2.3.8 Introduced Species and Biological Disruptions; 2.3.9 Emerging Contaminants; 2.4 Overall Influence on the Environment and Human Health; 2.4.1 Environment; 2.4.2 Human Health; References; Chapter 3: Global Water Scarcity and Possible Conflicts; 3.1 Introduction; 3.2 Water Scarcity; 3.3 Access to Clean Drinking Water and Water Related Diseases; 3.4 Influences of Climate Change; 3.4.1 Observed Changes and/or Impacts
3.4.2 Future Changes in Water Availability3.4.3 Future Changes in Water Demand and Water Stress; 3.5 Possible Water Conflicts; 3.5.1 California: Consequences of Severe Drought; 3.5.2 Sao Paulo: Water Shortages in a Metropolis; 3.5.3 Nigeria: Growing Economy and the Cost of Crumbling Infrastructure; References; Part II: South Africaś and the Upper Vaal WMAs Freshwater Resources; Chapter 4: South Africaś Water Availability and Use; 4.1 Introduction; 4.2 Water Availability; 4.3 Water Use and Losses Within the Country; 4.3.1 Agricultural Water Use and Losses
4.3.2 Industrial WaterUse and Losses4.3.3 Municipal/Domestic Water Use and Losses; References; Chapter 5: The Upper Vaal WMA; 5.1 Introduction; 5.2 Upper Vaal Catchment Areas; 5.3 Geology and Soils; 5.4 Topography; 5.5 Hydrology; 5.6 Climate; 5.7 Ecology; 5.8 Land Cover and Land Use; References; Chapter 6: Primary Water Quality Challenges for South Africa and the Upper Vaal WMA; 6.1 Introduction; 6.2 Sewage or Microbial Pollution; 6.3 Eutrophication; 6.4 Agro-chemical Contamination; 6.5 Industrial Effluent Pollution; 6.6 Salinisation; 6.7 Mining Effluent Pollution; 6.8 Acidification
6.9 Sediments and Soil Erosion6.10 Specific Water Quality Challenges Within the Upper Vaal WMA; References; Chapter 7: Water Scarcity and Other Significant Challenges for South Africa; 7.1 Introduction; 7.2 Water Scarcity; 7.3 Possible Influence of Climate Change; 7.4 Future Water Demand and Possible Water Conflicts; References; Part III: Future Possibilities and Strategic Actions; Chapter 8: A Future Outlook: Improved Water Efficiency and Possible Strategic Actions for South Africa and the Upper Vaal WMA; 8.1 Introduction; 8.2 Improved Water Efficiency Measures; 8.2.1 Agricultural Sector
2.3.3 Water Temperature2.3.4 Acidification; 2.3.5 Salinity; 2.3.6 Pathogenic Organisms; 2.3.7 Trace Metals, Human-Produced Chemicals and Other Toxins; 2.3.8 Introduced Species and Biological Disruptions; 2.3.9 Emerging Contaminants; 2.4 Overall Influence on the Environment and Human Health; 2.4.1 Environment; 2.4.2 Human Health; References; Chapter 3: Global Water Scarcity and Possible Conflicts; 3.1 Introduction; 3.2 Water Scarcity; 3.3 Access to Clean Drinking Water and Water Related Diseases; 3.4 Influences of Climate Change; 3.4.1 Observed Changes and/or Impacts
3.4.2 Future Changes in Water Availability3.4.3 Future Changes in Water Demand and Water Stress; 3.5 Possible Water Conflicts; 3.5.1 California: Consequences of Severe Drought; 3.5.2 Sao Paulo: Water Shortages in a Metropolis; 3.5.3 Nigeria: Growing Economy and the Cost of Crumbling Infrastructure; References; Part II: South Africaś and the Upper Vaal WMAs Freshwater Resources; Chapter 4: South Africaś Water Availability and Use; 4.1 Introduction; 4.2 Water Availability; 4.3 Water Use and Losses Within the Country; 4.3.1 Agricultural Water Use and Losses
4.3.2 Industrial WaterUse and Losses4.3.3 Municipal/Domestic Water Use and Losses; References; Chapter 5: The Upper Vaal WMA; 5.1 Introduction; 5.2 Upper Vaal Catchment Areas; 5.3 Geology and Soils; 5.4 Topography; 5.5 Hydrology; 5.6 Climate; 5.7 Ecology; 5.8 Land Cover and Land Use; References; Chapter 6: Primary Water Quality Challenges for South Africa and the Upper Vaal WMA; 6.1 Introduction; 6.2 Sewage or Microbial Pollution; 6.3 Eutrophication; 6.4 Agro-chemical Contamination; 6.5 Industrial Effluent Pollution; 6.6 Salinisation; 6.7 Mining Effluent Pollution; 6.8 Acidification
6.9 Sediments and Soil Erosion6.10 Specific Water Quality Challenges Within the Upper Vaal WMA; References; Chapter 7: Water Scarcity and Other Significant Challenges for South Africa; 7.1 Introduction; 7.2 Water Scarcity; 7.3 Possible Influence of Climate Change; 7.4 Future Water Demand and Possible Water Conflicts; References; Part III: Future Possibilities and Strategic Actions; Chapter 8: A Future Outlook: Improved Water Efficiency and Possible Strategic Actions for South Africa and the Upper Vaal WMA; 8.1 Introduction; 8.2 Improved Water Efficiency Measures; 8.2.1 Agricultural Sector