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Preface; Acknowledgements; Contents; Acronyms; List of Figures; List of Tables; Chapter 1: Introduction; References; Chapter 2: Suggested Angiosperm Ancestors; 2.1 Gnetales; 2.2 Gigantopteriales; 2.3 Glossopteridales; 2.4 Sanmiguelia; 2.5 Leptostrobus; 2.6 Caytonia; 2.7 Bennettitales; 2.8 Umkomasia; 2.9 Problematospermum; 2.10 Dirhopalostachyaceae; 2.11 Ktalenia; 2.12 Pentoxylales; 2.13 Irania; 2.14 Summary; References; Chapter 3: Angiosperms: Characters and Criteria; 3.1 Messy Definitions of Angiosperms; 3.2 Angiospermous Characters; 3.2.1 Leaf Venation; 3.2.2 Vessel Elements in the Xylem.
3.2.3 Closed Carpel, or Enclosed Seed3.2.4 Bitegmic Ovule; 3.2.5 Double Fertilization; 3.2.6 Tetrasporangiate Anther; 3.2.7 Pollen Tube; 3.2.8 Tectate-Columellate Pollen Grains; 3.2.9 Developmental Pattern; 3.2.10 Chemical Species; 3.3 Criterion for Criteria; 3.4 Criterion for Fossil Angiosperms; References; Chapter 4: Background for the Plant Fossils; 4.1 Stratigraphy; 4.2 Faunas; 4.2.1 The Jiulongshan Fauna; 4.2.2 The Yixian Fauna; 4.3 Floras; 4.3.1 The Jiulongshan Flora; 4.3.2 The Yixian Flora; References; Chapter 5: Flowers from the Early Cretaceous; 5.1 Chaoyangia; 5.1.1 Previous Studies.
5.1.2 Misunderstanding and Clarification5.1.3 New Information; 5.1.3.1 Physically Connected Male and Female Flowers; 5.1.3.2 Young Female Flowers; 5.1.3.3 Styles and Stigmas; 5.1.3.4 Male Flowers; 5.1.3.5 Enclosed Ovules/Seeds; 5.1.4 Emended Diagnosis; 5.1.5 Description; 5.1.6 Development; 5.1.7 Pollination; 5.1.8 Additional Points; 5.1.8.1 Spiny Fructification; 5.1.9 Affinity; 5.1.9.1 Morphological Data; 5.1.9.2 Cladistics; 5.1.10 Problems Unsolved; 5.2 Archaefructus; 5.2.1 Archaefructus, a Great Discovery; 5.2.2 Controversies over Archaefructus; 5.2.3 Diagnosis After Emendation.
5.2.4 Ecology of Archaefructus5.2.5 The Discovery of Archaefructus; 5.3 Sinocarpus; 5.4 Callianthus; 5.4.1 Previous Studies; 5.4.2 Misunderstanding and Clarification; 5.4.3 New Information; 5.4.3.1 Physically Connected Male Floral Parts, Female Floral Parts, and Tepals; 5.4.3.2 Female Floral Parts; 5.4.3.3 Styles and Stigmas; 5.4.3.4 Stamens; 5.4.3.5 Fruits; 5.4.3.6 In Situ Pollen Grains; 5.4.3.7 Tepals; 5.4.4 Diagnosis; 5.4.5 Description; 5.4.6 Development; 5.4.7 Pollination and Dispersal; 5.4.8 Affinity; 5.4.8.1 Morphological Data; 5.5 Liaoningfructus; 5.5.1 General Background.
5.5.2 Generic Diagnosis5.5.3 Liaoningfructus ascidiatus; 5.5.4 Discussions; 5.5.4.1 Eliminating Alternatives; 5.5.4.2 Affinity; 5.5.4.3 Evolutionary Implications; 5.6 Baicarpus; 5.6.1 Diagnosis; 5.6.2 Baicarpus huangbanjigouensis (Figs. 5.32 and 5.33); 5.6.3 Baicarpus gracilis (Fig. 5.34a-e); 5.6.4 Baicarpus robusta (Fig. 5.34f-h); 5.6.5 General Remarks; 5.6.6 Affinity; 5.6.7 Comparisons; 5.6.8 Implications on Style Evolution; 5.7 Nothodichocarpum; 5.7.1 Generic Diagnosis; 5.7.2 Nothodichocarpum lingyuanensis (Figs. 5.36-5.39); 5.7.3 Remarks; 5.7.4 Affinity and Comparison.
3.2.3 Closed Carpel, or Enclosed Seed3.2.4 Bitegmic Ovule; 3.2.5 Double Fertilization; 3.2.6 Tetrasporangiate Anther; 3.2.7 Pollen Tube; 3.2.8 Tectate-Columellate Pollen Grains; 3.2.9 Developmental Pattern; 3.2.10 Chemical Species; 3.3 Criterion for Criteria; 3.4 Criterion for Fossil Angiosperms; References; Chapter 4: Background for the Plant Fossils; 4.1 Stratigraphy; 4.2 Faunas; 4.2.1 The Jiulongshan Fauna; 4.2.2 The Yixian Fauna; 4.3 Floras; 4.3.1 The Jiulongshan Flora; 4.3.2 The Yixian Flora; References; Chapter 5: Flowers from the Early Cretaceous; 5.1 Chaoyangia; 5.1.1 Previous Studies.
5.1.2 Misunderstanding and Clarification5.1.3 New Information; 5.1.3.1 Physically Connected Male and Female Flowers; 5.1.3.2 Young Female Flowers; 5.1.3.3 Styles and Stigmas; 5.1.3.4 Male Flowers; 5.1.3.5 Enclosed Ovules/Seeds; 5.1.4 Emended Diagnosis; 5.1.5 Description; 5.1.6 Development; 5.1.7 Pollination; 5.1.8 Additional Points; 5.1.8.1 Spiny Fructification; 5.1.9 Affinity; 5.1.9.1 Morphological Data; 5.1.9.2 Cladistics; 5.1.10 Problems Unsolved; 5.2 Archaefructus; 5.2.1 Archaefructus, a Great Discovery; 5.2.2 Controversies over Archaefructus; 5.2.3 Diagnosis After Emendation.
5.2.4 Ecology of Archaefructus5.2.5 The Discovery of Archaefructus; 5.3 Sinocarpus; 5.4 Callianthus; 5.4.1 Previous Studies; 5.4.2 Misunderstanding and Clarification; 5.4.3 New Information; 5.4.3.1 Physically Connected Male Floral Parts, Female Floral Parts, and Tepals; 5.4.3.2 Female Floral Parts; 5.4.3.3 Styles and Stigmas; 5.4.3.4 Stamens; 5.4.3.5 Fruits; 5.4.3.6 In Situ Pollen Grains; 5.4.3.7 Tepals; 5.4.4 Diagnosis; 5.4.5 Description; 5.4.6 Development; 5.4.7 Pollination and Dispersal; 5.4.8 Affinity; 5.4.8.1 Morphological Data; 5.5 Liaoningfructus; 5.5.1 General Background.
5.5.2 Generic Diagnosis5.5.3 Liaoningfructus ascidiatus; 5.5.4 Discussions; 5.5.4.1 Eliminating Alternatives; 5.5.4.2 Affinity; 5.5.4.3 Evolutionary Implications; 5.6 Baicarpus; 5.6.1 Diagnosis; 5.6.2 Baicarpus huangbanjigouensis (Figs. 5.32 and 5.33); 5.6.3 Baicarpus gracilis (Fig. 5.34a-e); 5.6.4 Baicarpus robusta (Fig. 5.34f-h); 5.6.5 General Remarks; 5.6.6 Affinity; 5.6.7 Comparisons; 5.6.8 Implications on Style Evolution; 5.7 Nothodichocarpum; 5.7.1 Generic Diagnosis; 5.7.2 Nothodichocarpum lingyuanensis (Figs. 5.36-5.39); 5.7.3 Remarks; 5.7.4 Affinity and Comparison.