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Foreword; Preface; Contents; Contributors; 1 Principles of Nonunions; 1.1 Introduction; 1.2 History; 1.3 Risk Factors for Nonunion; 1.4 General Principles; 1.4.1 Diagnosis; 1.4.2 Radiographic Evaluation and Scoring; 1.4.3 Laboratory Evaluation; 1.5 Definitions and Classification; 1.6 Management Principles; 1.6.1 Biological Environment: Systemic; 1.6.2 Biological Environment: Local; 1.6.3 Mechanical Environment: Local; 1.6.4 Mechanical Environment: Limb; 1.6.5 Adjunct Therapies; 1.7 Summary; References; 2 Fracture Healing; 2.1 Introduction; 2.2 Physiology of Fracture Healing.
2.2.1 Biology of Fracture Healing2.2.1.1 Direct Fracture Healing; 2.2.1.2 Indirect Fracture Healing; 2.2.2 Biomechanics of Fracture Healing; 2.2.2.1 Interfragmentary Strain; 2.2.2.2 Fracture Gap; 2.2.2.3 Timing in Fracture Healing; 2.2.3 Assessment of Fracture Healing; 2.2.3.1 Clinical Criteria; 2.2.3.2 Radiologic Scores; 2.3 Modulation of Fracture Healing; 2.3.1 Comorbidities; 2.3.1.1 Aging; 2.3.1.2 Metabolic Bone Disease; 2.3.1.3 Endocrine Disorders; 2.3.2 Habits; 2.3.2.1 Smoking; 2.3.2.2 Alcohol Consumption; 2.3.3 Medications; 2.3.3.1 Nonsteroidal Anti-inflammatory Drugs.
2.3.3.2 Bisphosphonates2.3.3.3 Parathyroid Hormone Analogs; 2.4 Conclusion; References; 3 Clavicle Nonunions; 3.1 Introduction; 3.2 Classification; 3.3 Epidemiology; 3.4 Rates of Nonunion in Displaced Clavicular Fractures; 3.5 Possible Risk Factors for Nonunion; 3.6 Treatment Options; 3.7 Nonoperative; 3.8 Operative; 3.8.1 Reconstructive Procedures; 3.9 Open Reduction Internal Fixation with Autogenous Bone Graft; 3.9.1 Surgical Method; 3.9.2 An Innovative Method; 3.9.3 Literature Review; 3.9.4 Multicenter, Randomized Controlled Trials; 3.10 ORIF Without Bone Grafting.
3.11 ORIF with Allograft Bone Substitute3.12 Vascularized Bone Graft Reconstruction; 3.13 Intramedullary Pin Fixation; 3.13.1 Resection; 3.14 Conclusion; References; 4 Proximal Humerus Nonunions; 4.1 Introduction; 4.2 Epidemiology; 4.3 Risk Factors; 4.4 Classification; 4.5 Patient Evaluation; 4.5.1 Clinical Examination; 4.5.2 Radiographic Imaging; 4.5.3 Laboratory Tests; 4.6 Surgical Timing; 4.7 Treatment Options; 4.7.1 Non-operative; 4.7.2 Surgical Treatment; 4.7.3 Avascular Necrosis; 4.7.4 Osteosynthesis; 4.7.4.1 ORIF with Standard Plates; 4.7.4.2 ORIF with Blade Plates.
4.7.5 Use of Augmentation4.7.5.1 Structural Graft Augmentation; 4.7.5.2 Biologic Augmentation; 4.7.6 Unreamed Intramedullary Rods; 4.7.7 Interlocking Intramedullary Nails; 4.7.8 Summary of Internal Fixation Devices; 4.8 Arthroplasty; 4.8.1 Unconstrained Arthroplasty; 4.8.2 Reverse Total Shoulder Arthroplasty; 4.8.3 Summary of Arthroplasty Options; 4.9 Conclusion; References; 5 Supracondylar Humeral Nonunions; 5.1 Introduction; 5.2 Assessment; 5.3 Surgical Tactic; 5.4 Surgical Approaches; 5.5 Postoperative Rehabilitation; 5.6 Complications; 5.7 Conclusion; 5.8 Case Discussions; References; 6 Nonunions of the Forearm.
2.2.1 Biology of Fracture Healing2.2.1.1 Direct Fracture Healing; 2.2.1.2 Indirect Fracture Healing; 2.2.2 Biomechanics of Fracture Healing; 2.2.2.1 Interfragmentary Strain; 2.2.2.2 Fracture Gap; 2.2.2.3 Timing in Fracture Healing; 2.2.3 Assessment of Fracture Healing; 2.2.3.1 Clinical Criteria; 2.2.3.2 Radiologic Scores; 2.3 Modulation of Fracture Healing; 2.3.1 Comorbidities; 2.3.1.1 Aging; 2.3.1.2 Metabolic Bone Disease; 2.3.1.3 Endocrine Disorders; 2.3.2 Habits; 2.3.2.1 Smoking; 2.3.2.2 Alcohol Consumption; 2.3.3 Medications; 2.3.3.1 Nonsteroidal Anti-inflammatory Drugs.
2.3.3.2 Bisphosphonates2.3.3.3 Parathyroid Hormone Analogs; 2.4 Conclusion; References; 3 Clavicle Nonunions; 3.1 Introduction; 3.2 Classification; 3.3 Epidemiology; 3.4 Rates of Nonunion in Displaced Clavicular Fractures; 3.5 Possible Risk Factors for Nonunion; 3.6 Treatment Options; 3.7 Nonoperative; 3.8 Operative; 3.8.1 Reconstructive Procedures; 3.9 Open Reduction Internal Fixation with Autogenous Bone Graft; 3.9.1 Surgical Method; 3.9.2 An Innovative Method; 3.9.3 Literature Review; 3.9.4 Multicenter, Randomized Controlled Trials; 3.10 ORIF Without Bone Grafting.
3.11 ORIF with Allograft Bone Substitute3.12 Vascularized Bone Graft Reconstruction; 3.13 Intramedullary Pin Fixation; 3.13.1 Resection; 3.14 Conclusion; References; 4 Proximal Humerus Nonunions; 4.1 Introduction; 4.2 Epidemiology; 4.3 Risk Factors; 4.4 Classification; 4.5 Patient Evaluation; 4.5.1 Clinical Examination; 4.5.2 Radiographic Imaging; 4.5.3 Laboratory Tests; 4.6 Surgical Timing; 4.7 Treatment Options; 4.7.1 Non-operative; 4.7.2 Surgical Treatment; 4.7.3 Avascular Necrosis; 4.7.4 Osteosynthesis; 4.7.4.1 ORIF with Standard Plates; 4.7.4.2 ORIF with Blade Plates.
4.7.5 Use of Augmentation4.7.5.1 Structural Graft Augmentation; 4.7.5.2 Biologic Augmentation; 4.7.6 Unreamed Intramedullary Rods; 4.7.7 Interlocking Intramedullary Nails; 4.7.8 Summary of Internal Fixation Devices; 4.8 Arthroplasty; 4.8.1 Unconstrained Arthroplasty; 4.8.2 Reverse Total Shoulder Arthroplasty; 4.8.3 Summary of Arthroplasty Options; 4.9 Conclusion; References; 5 Supracondylar Humeral Nonunions; 5.1 Introduction; 5.2 Assessment; 5.3 Surgical Tactic; 5.4 Surgical Approaches; 5.5 Postoperative Rehabilitation; 5.6 Complications; 5.7 Conclusion; 5.8 Case Discussions; References; 6 Nonunions of the Forearm.