Chapter one. History of ultrasonics
Ultrasonics and level measurement
Product development map
Ultrasonic theory
Sound
Using sound
Frequency and wavelength
Measurement principle
The medium and the message
Sound intensity
Sound velocity and temperature
Sound velocity and gas
Sound velocity and pressure
Sound velocity and vacuum
Sound velocity and attenuation
Sound reflection
Sound diffraction
Sound pressure level (SPL)
Sound intensity changes
Summary


Chapter two.
Ultrasonic instrumentation
The transducer
Transducer environments
Transducer accuracy
Transducer resolution and accuracy
Impedance matching
Axis of transmission
Beam width
Beam spreading
Ringdown
The controllers
Digital filtering
Averaging echoes
Echo extraction algorithms
Summary
Notes


Chapter three.
The sound and the slurry
Topics
Transducers and ultrasonic systems
Single systems
Compound systems
Transducers
Temperature and transducer material
Temperature sensors
Sound and differential amplifiers
Single-ended receiver
Differential receiver
Application temperature
Housing material
Range and power
Conditions
Dust
Stilling wells
Foam facing
Moisture on transducer face
Transducer selection
Blanking distance and height placement
Temperature
Installation
Transducer design: the heart of the matter
Summary


Chapter four. Echo processing
Topics
Echo processing, intelligence
Understanding echo processing
Shots and profiles
Finding the true echo
Filters
True echo selection (selection of echo reflected by the intended target)
Selected echo verification
Echo quality
Figure of merit
Echo parameter fine tuning
Echo profiles
Profile components
Echo profile
Ringdown
TVT curve (Time Varying Threshold)
Echo marker
Echo lock window
Echo processing parameters
Echo confidence
The echo
Echo strength
Noise
Noise interference
Determining the noise source
Non-transducer noise sources
Common wiring problems
Reducing electrical noise
Acoustic noise
Reducing acoustic noise
Summary


Chapter five. Installation
Topics
Select the right transducer
Location
Obstructions
Closed vessels
Tanks
Tank access
Open vessels
Open channel meters: weirs and flumes
Flumes
Transducer location
Lift stations
Position control
Hazardous approvals
Approvals
Controller installation
Summary


Chapter six. Applications
Applications
Topics
Cement
Aggregate
Blending silos and storage bunkers
Environmental
Collection system: lift station/pump station/wet well
Wastewater treatment plant
Environmental applications
Food industry
Chemical industry
Other Industries


Chapter seven. Best in class, the ultrasonic product line
SITRANS LUT400
SITRANS Probe LU
The Probe
MultiRanger 100/200
SITRANS LU10
HydroRanger 200
Echomax Transducers
XRS-5
XPS/XCT Series
XLT Series
ST-H
Conclusion


Index
Glossary.