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Intro; Supervisor's Foreword; Abstract; Preface; Contents; 1 Introduction; 1.1 Motivation for This Work; 1.2 Fission Tracks in Apatite; 1.2.1 Apatite Minerals; 1.2.2 Fission Track Analysis; 1.2.3 Lab-Based Fission Track Annealing; 1.3 Ion Tracks in Quartz; 1.3.1 Natural and Synthetic Quartz; 1.3.2 Applications of Ion Tracks in Quartz; References; 2 Physical Background of Ion Tracks; 2.1 Interaction of Ions with Matter; 2.2 Formation of Ion Tracks; 2.2.1 Ion Track Morphology in Crystals; 2.2.2 Ion Tracks in Other Materials; 2.2.3 Modelling of Ion Tracks; References
3 X-Ray Characterisation Techniques3.1 Interaction of X-Rays with Matter; 3.1.1 X-Ray Absorption; 3.1.2 X-Ray Scattering Processes; 3.2 X-Ray Diffraction (XRD); 3.3 Small Angle X-Ray Scattering (SAXS); 3.3.1 Scattering Patterns of Cylindrical Objects; 3.3.2 Intersection Between the Ewald Sphere and Ion Tracks; 3.3.3 Experimental SAXS Detector Images; References; 4 Experimental Methods; 4.1 Sample Preparation Techniques; 4.2 High-Pressure Diamond Anvil Cells; 4.3 Swift Heavy Ion Irradiation; 4.3.1 ANU Heavy Ion Accelerator Facility; 4.3.2 GSI UNILAC; 4.3.3 GSI SIS 18
4.4 Synchrotron-Based Small Angle X-Ray Scattering4.4.1 The Australian Synchrotron; 4.4.2 The SAXS/WAXS Beamline; 4.5 Neutron Sources; 4.5.1 Open Pool Australian Lightwater (OPAL) at ANSTO; 4.5.2 Spallation Neutron Source (SNS) at ORNL; References; 5 Ion Track Formation Under Ambient Conditions; 5.1 Track Characterisation with SAXS and SANS; 5.2 Effects of Ion Irradiation Parameters on Tracks; 5.2.1 Ion Fluence Effects; 5.2.2 Ion Energy and Energy Loss; 5.3 Effects of the Crystallographic Direction on Tracks; 5.3.1 Quartz; 5.3.2 Apatite; 5.4 The Shape of Ion Tracks in Apatite
5.5 The Cross-Section of Ion Tracks in Quartz5.6 Summary; References; 6 Track Formation Under Temperature and Pressure; 6.1 Temperature-Dependence of Ion Track Formation; 6.1.1 Apatite; 6.1.2 Quartz; 6.1.3 Simulations and Discussion; 6.2 Ion Irradiation Under Pressure; 6.2.1 Track Formation in Quartz Within Diamond Anvil Cells; 6.2.2 Thermal Spike Calculations for Elevated Pressure; 6.2.3 Molecular Dynamics Simulations; 6.3 Summary; References; 7 Thermal Annealing of Ion Tracks; 7.1 Ion Tracks in Quartz; 7.1.1 Isochronal Annealing; 7.1.2 Isothermal Annealing
7.2 Ion Tracks in Apatite and the Effects of Pressure7.2.1 Isothermal Annealing Under Ambient Pressure; 7.2.2 Thermal Stability of Ion Tracks Formed at Elevated Temperatures; 7.2.3 Effect of Pressure on Non-irradiated Apatite and Pre-existing Tracks; 7.2.4 In situ Annealing Using Diamond Anvil Cells; 7.2.5 Discussion and Extrapolation to Geologically Relevant Pressures; 7.3 Summary; References; 8 Summary and Outlook; 8.1 Future Directions; 8.1.1 Effects of Pressure on the Recrystallisation of Tracks; 8.1.2 Generalisation of the Effects of Pressure During Track Formation
3 X-Ray Characterisation Techniques3.1 Interaction of X-Rays with Matter; 3.1.1 X-Ray Absorption; 3.1.2 X-Ray Scattering Processes; 3.2 X-Ray Diffraction (XRD); 3.3 Small Angle X-Ray Scattering (SAXS); 3.3.1 Scattering Patterns of Cylindrical Objects; 3.3.2 Intersection Between the Ewald Sphere and Ion Tracks; 3.3.3 Experimental SAXS Detector Images; References; 4 Experimental Methods; 4.1 Sample Preparation Techniques; 4.2 High-Pressure Diamond Anvil Cells; 4.3 Swift Heavy Ion Irradiation; 4.3.1 ANU Heavy Ion Accelerator Facility; 4.3.2 GSI UNILAC; 4.3.3 GSI SIS 18
4.4 Synchrotron-Based Small Angle X-Ray Scattering4.4.1 The Australian Synchrotron; 4.4.2 The SAXS/WAXS Beamline; 4.5 Neutron Sources; 4.5.1 Open Pool Australian Lightwater (OPAL) at ANSTO; 4.5.2 Spallation Neutron Source (SNS) at ORNL; References; 5 Ion Track Formation Under Ambient Conditions; 5.1 Track Characterisation with SAXS and SANS; 5.2 Effects of Ion Irradiation Parameters on Tracks; 5.2.1 Ion Fluence Effects; 5.2.2 Ion Energy and Energy Loss; 5.3 Effects of the Crystallographic Direction on Tracks; 5.3.1 Quartz; 5.3.2 Apatite; 5.4 The Shape of Ion Tracks in Apatite
5.5 The Cross-Section of Ion Tracks in Quartz5.6 Summary; References; 6 Track Formation Under Temperature and Pressure; 6.1 Temperature-Dependence of Ion Track Formation; 6.1.1 Apatite; 6.1.2 Quartz; 6.1.3 Simulations and Discussion; 6.2 Ion Irradiation Under Pressure; 6.2.1 Track Formation in Quartz Within Diamond Anvil Cells; 6.2.2 Thermal Spike Calculations for Elevated Pressure; 6.2.3 Molecular Dynamics Simulations; 6.3 Summary; References; 7 Thermal Annealing of Ion Tracks; 7.1 Ion Tracks in Quartz; 7.1.1 Isochronal Annealing; 7.1.2 Isothermal Annealing
7.2 Ion Tracks in Apatite and the Effects of Pressure7.2.1 Isothermal Annealing Under Ambient Pressure; 7.2.2 Thermal Stability of Ion Tracks Formed at Elevated Temperatures; 7.2.3 Effect of Pressure on Non-irradiated Apatite and Pre-existing Tracks; 7.2.4 In situ Annealing Using Diamond Anvil Cells; 7.2.5 Discussion and Extrapolation to Geologically Relevant Pressures; 7.3 Summary; References; 8 Summary and Outlook; 8.1 Future Directions; 8.1.1 Effects of Pressure on the Recrystallisation of Tracks; 8.1.2 Generalisation of the Effects of Pressure During Track Formation