1. Fundamentals
1.1 Introduction
1.1.1 Perspective
1.1.2 Overview
1.1.3 Recommendations
1.2 PID controller
1.2.1 Proportional mode
1.2.2 Integral mode
1.2.3 Derivative mode
1.2.4 ARW and output limits
1.2.5 Control action and valve action
1.2.6 Operating modes
1.3 Loop dynamics
1.3.1 Types of process responses
1.3.2 Dead times and time constants
1.3.3 Open loop self-regulating and integrating process gains
1.3.4 Deadband, resolution, and threshold sensitivity
1.4 Typical mode settings
1.5 Typical tuning methods
1.5.1 Lambda tuning for self-regulating processes
1.5.2 Lambda tuning for integrating processes
1.5.3 IMC tuning for self-regulating processes
1.5.4 IMC tuning for integrating processes
1.5.5 Skogestad internal model control tuning for self-regulating processes
1.5.6 SIMC tuning for integrating processes
1.5.7 Traditional open loop tuning
1.5.8 Modified Ziegler-Nichols reaction curve tuning
1.5.9 Modified Ziegler-Nichols ultimate oscillation tuning
1.5.10 Quarter amplitude oscillation tuning
1.5.11 SCM tuning for self-regulating processes
1.5.12 SCM tuning for integrating processes
1.5.13 SCM tuning for runaway processes
1.5.14 Maximizing absorption of variability tuning for surge tank level
1.6 Test results
1.6.1 Performance of tuning settings on dead time dominant processes
1.6.2 Performance of tuning settings on near-integrating processes
1.6.3 Performance of tuning settings on true integrating processes
1.6.4 Performance of tuning settings on runaway processes
1.6.5 Slow oscillations from low PID gain in integrating and runaway processes
1.6.6 Performance of tuning methods on various processes
Key points


2. Unified methodology
2.1 Introduction
2.1.1 Perspective
2.1.2 Overview
2.1.3 Recommendations
2.2 PID features
2.2.1 PID form
2.2.2 External reset feedback
2.2.3 PID structure
2.2.4 Split range
2.2.5 Signal characterization
2.2.6 Feedforward
2.2.7 Decoupling
2.2.8 Output tracking and remote output
2.2.9 Setpoint filter, lead-lag, and rate limits
2.2.10 Enhanced PID for wireless and analyzers
2.3 Automation system difficulties
2.3.1 Open loop gain problems
2.3.2 Time constant problems
2.3.3 Dead time problems
2.3.4 Limit cycle problems
2.3.5 Noise problems
2.3.6 Accuracy and precision problems
2.4 Process objectives
2.4.1 Maximize turndown
2.4.2 Maximize safety and environmental protection
2.4.3 Minimize product variability
2.4.4 Maximize process efficiency and capacity
2.5 Step-by-step solutions
2.6 Test results
Key points


3. Performance criteria
3.1 Introduction
3.1.1 Perspective
3.1.2 Overview
3.1.3 Recommendations
3.2 Disturbance response metrics
3.2.1 Accumulated error
3.2.2 Peak error
3.2.3 Disturbance lag
3.3 Setpoint response metrics
3.3.1 Rise time
3.3.2 Overshoot and undershoot
Key points


4. Effect of process dynamics
4.1 Introduction
4.1.1 Perspective
4.1.2 Overview
4.1.3 Recommendations
4.2 Effect of mechanical design
4.2.1 Equipment and piping dynamics
4.2.2 Common equipment and piping design mistakes
4.3 Estimation of total dead time
4.4 Estimation of open loop gain
4.5 Major types of process responses
4.5.1 Self-regulating processes
4.5.2 Integrating processes
4.5.3 Runaway processes
4.6 Examples
4.6.1 Waste treatment pH loops (self-regulating process)
4.6.2 Boiler feedwater flow loop (self-regulating process)
4.6.3 Boiler drum level loop (integrating process)
4.6.4 Furnace pressure loop (near-integrating process)
4.6.5 Exothermic reactor cascade temperature loop (runaway process)
4.6.6 Biological reactor biomass concentration loop (runaway process)
Key points


5. Effect of controller dynamics
5.1 Introduction
5.1.1 Perspective
5.1.2 Overview
5.1.3 Recommendations
5.2 Execution rate and filter time
5.2.1 First effect via equation for integrated error
5.2.2 Second effect via equations for implied dead time
5.3 Smart reset action
5.4 Diagnosis of tuning problems
5.5 Furnace pressure loop example (near-integrating)
5.6 Test results
Key points


6. Effect of measurement dynamics
6.1 Introduction
6.1.1 Perspective
6.1.2 Overview
6.1.3 Recommendations
6.2 Wireless update rate and transmitter damping
6.2.1 First effect via equation for integrated error
6.2.2 Second effect via equations for implied dead time
6.3 Analyzers
6.4 Sensor lags and delays
6.5 Noise and repeatability
6.6 Threshold sensitivity and resolution limits
6.7 Rangeability (turndown)
6.8 Runaway processes
6.9 Accuracy, precision, and drift
6.10 Attenuation and deception
6.11 Examples
6.11.1 Waste treatment pH loop (self-regulating process)
6.11.2 Boiler feedwater flow loop (self-regulating process)
6.11.3 Boiler drum level loop (integrating process)
6.11.4 Furnace pressure loop (near-integrating process)
6.11.5 Exothermic reactor cascade temperature loop (runaway process)
6.11.6 Biological reactor biomass concentration loop (runaway process)
6.12 Test results
Key points


7. Effect of valve and variable frequency drive dynamics
7.1 Introduction
7.1.1 Perspective
7.1.2 Overview
7.1.3 Recommendations
7.2 Valve positioners and accessories
7.2.1 Pneumatic positioners
7.2.2 Digital positioners
7.2.3 Current to pneumatic (I/P) transducers
7.2.4 Solenoid valves
7.2.5 Volume boosters
7.3 Actuators, shafts, and stems
7.3.1 Diaphragm actuators
7.3.2 Piston actuators
7.3.3 Linkages and connections
7.4 VFD system design
7.4.1 Pulse width modulation
7.4.2 Cable problems
7.4.3 Bearing problems
7.4.4 Speed slip
7.4.5 Motor requirements
7.4.6 Drive controls
7.5 Dynamic response
7.5.1 Control valve response
7.5.2 VFD response
7.5.3 Dead time approximation
7.5.4 Deadband and resolution
7.5.5 When is a valve or VFD too slow?
7.5.6 Limit cycles
7.6 Installed flow characteristics and rangeability
7.6.1 Valve flow characteristics
7.6.2 Valve rangeability
7.6.3 VFD flow characteristics
7.6.4 VFD rangeability
7.7 Best practices
7.7.1 Control valve design specifications
7.7.2 VFD design specifications
7.8 Test results
Key points


8. Effect of disturbances
8.1 Introduction
8.1.1 Perspective
8.1.2 Overview
8.1.3 Recommendations
8.2 Disturbance dynamics
8.2.1 Load time constants
8.2.2 Load rate limit
8.2.3 Disturbance dead time
8.2.4 Disturbance oscillations
8.3 Disturbance location
8.4 Disturbance troubleshooting
8.4.1 Sources of fast oscillations
8.4.2 Sources of slow oscillations
8.5 Disturbance mitigation
8.6 Test results
Key points


9. Effect of nonlinearities
9.1 Introduction
9.1.1 Perspective
9.1.2 Overview
9.1.3 Recommendations
9.2 Variable gain
9.2.1 Cascade control
9.2.2 Reversals of process sign
9.2.3 Signal characterization
9.2.4 Gain scheduling
9.2.5 Adaptive control
9.2.6 Gain margin
9.3 Variable dead time
9.4 Variable time constant
9.5 Inverse response
9.6 Test results
Key points


10. Effect of interactions
10.1 Introduction
10.1.1 Perspective
10.1.2 Overview
10.1.3 Recommendations
10.2 Pairing
10.2.1 Relative gain array
10.2.2 Distillation column example
10.2.3 Static mixer example
10.2.4 Hidden control loops
10.2.5 Relative gains less than zero
10.2.6 Relative gains from zero to one
10.2.7 Relative gains greater than one
10.2.8 Model predictive control
10.3 Decoupling
10.4 Directional move suppression
10.5 Tuning
10.6 Test results
Key points


11. Cascade control
11.1 Introduction
11.1.1 Perspective
11.1.2 Overview
11.1.3 Recommendations
11.2 Configuration and tuning
11.3 Process control benefits
11.4 Process knowledge benefits
11.5 Watch-outs
11.6 Test results
Key points


12. Advanced regulatory control
12.1 Introduction
12.1.1 Perspective
12.1.2 Overview
12.1.3 Recommendations
12.2 Feedforward control
12.2.1 Opportunities
12.2.2 Watch-outs
12.3 Intelligent output action
12.3.1 Opportunities
12.3.2 Watch-outs
12.4 Intelligent integral action
12.4.1 Opportunities
12.4.2 Watch-outs
12.5 Dead time compensation
12.5.1 Opportunities
12.5.2 Watch-outs
12.6 Valve position control
12.6.1 Opportunities
12.6.2 Watch-outs
12.7 Override control
12.7.1 Opportunities
12.7.2 Watch-outs
12.8 Test results
Key points


13. Process control improvement
13.1 Introduction
13.1.1 Perspective
13.1.2 Overview
13.1.3 Recommendations
13.2 Unit operation metrics
13.3 Opportunities
13.3.1 Variability
13.3.2 Increasing capacity and efficiency
13.3.3 Effective use of models
13.3.4 Sizing and assessment
13.4 Key questions
Key points


14. Auto tuners and adaptive control
14.1 Introduction
14.1.1 Perspective
14.1.2 Overview
14.1.3 Recommendations
14.2 Methodology
Key points


15. Batch optimization
15.1 Introduction
15.1.1 Perspective
15.1.2 Overview
15.1.3 Recommendations
15.2 Cycle time
15.3 Profile
15.4 End point
Key points


Appendix A. Automation system performance top 10 concepts
Appendix B. Basics of PID controllers
Appendix C. Controller performance
Appendix D. Discussion
Appendix E. Enhanced PID for wireless and analyzer applications
Appendix F. First principle process relationships
Appendix G. Gas pressure dynamics
Appendix H. Convective heat transfer coefficients
Appendix I. Interactive to noninteractive time constant conversion
Appendix. Jacket and coil temperature control
Appendix K. PID forms and conversion of tuning settings
Appendix L. Liquid mixing dynamics
Appendix M. Measurement speed requirements for SIS
References
Bibliography
About the author
Index.